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Fig. 5 in New Morphological Evidence for the Phylogeny of Artiodactyla, Cetacea, and Mesonychidae

Fig. 5. Plantar views of the right astragali of three ungulates. Line drawings are on page facing the stereopairs. Lateral is to the right, proximal is toward the top of the page, and the scale bars represent 10 mm. A. Plantar view of the right astragalus of the artiodactyl Archaeotherium sp. (AMNH 1277). Note the wide and laterally positioned sustentacular facet, absence of the interarticular sulcus, and the laterally facing ectal facet. B. Right astragalus of the mesonychid Pachyaena ossifraga (AMNH 16154). The astragalus of Pachyaena has a small and medially positioned sustentacular facet, an astragalar canal leading into an interarticular sulcus, and a large plantarfacing ectal facet. C. Left astragalus (photos reversed for comparison) of Phenacodus sp. (AMNH 15262). The astragalus of Phenacodus is very similar to that of Pachyaena except for an occluded astragalar canal and the absence of an articular facet with the cuboid. Abbreviations: ac, astragalar canal; cuf, articular facet for the cuboid; ecf, ectal facet; ins, interarticular sulcus; naf, articular facet for the navicular; suf, sustentacular facet.

Fig. 10. A in New Morphological Evidence for the Phylogeny of Artiodactyla, Cetacea, and Mesonychidae

Fig. 10. A. One of two most parsimonious trees based on the morphological data in appendix 3, if all extinct taxa and their character codings are excluded from the phylogenetic analysis. Sus and Tayassu do not form a clade in the other shortest tree; instead, Tayassu is the sister group to Neoselenodontia and Equus. Tree A has a length of 483 steps. B. The most parsimonious tree based on all data in appendix 3; unlike tree A, all taxa were included in the analysis (see fig. 8). The extinct taxa were pruned from the tree in fig. 8 to produce tree B, and the length was recalculated as 490 steps with all extinct taxa and their codings removed. C. The most parsimonious tree from the WHIPPO2 matrix of Gatesy et al. (1999a); by using the data for extant taxa only in appendix 3, the tree length is 499 steps. Unlike O'Leary and Geisler (1999), if all extinct taxa are excluded, the most parsimonious trees still exclude Cetacea from the clade including all extant artiodactyls (tree A). Even though the topology of the most parsimonious tree for the morphology matrix does not have a monophyletic Artiodactyla (tree A), the hypothesis based on all taxa (tree B) is still more parsimonious than a moleculebased hypothesis (tree C) by 16 steps. Bold branches in trees denote the clade that includes all extant artiodactyls; taxa in bold are extant cetaceans. Cetacea is excluded from the artiodactyl clade in trees A and B, while it is included within the artiodactyl clade in tree C.

Fig. 1 in New Morphological Evidence for the Phylogeny of Artiodactyla, Cetacea, and Mesonychidae

Fig. 1. Previous phylogenetic hypotheses for artiodactyls, cetaceans, and mesonychids. Taxa not included in this study were pruned from each tree, and taxa shared between the previous two studies are in boldface. A. The most parsimonious tree for the morphological data analyzed by O'Leary and Geisler (1999). Note that Artiodactyla, Neoselenodontia, and Suiformes are monophyletic. B. The strict consensus of the shortest trees for the WHIPPO2 molecular data set of Gatesy et al. (1999a). Unlike O'Leary and Geisler (1999), Artiodactyla, Neoselenodontia, and Suiformes are paraphyletic, while Whippomorpha, Cetruminantia, and Artiofabula are monophyletic.

Fig. 9 in New Morphological Evidence for the Phylogeny of Artiodactyla, Cetacea, and Mesonychidae

Fig. 9. The phylogeny within Artiodactyla, enlarged from the strict consensus shown in figure 8. Ruminantia is monophyletic in all most parsimonious trees as well as the superfamilies or families Cameloidea, Camelidae, Oreodontoidea, Protoceratidae, and Hippopotamidae. Taxon abbreviations: CA, Cameloidea; H, Hippopotamidae; L, Camelidae; N, Neoselenodontia; O, Oreodontoidea; R, Ruminantia; ''S'', Suina, which is paraphyletic because it excludes Perchoerus; T, Protoceratidae; U, Suiformes.

FIG. 19 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 19. White-lipped peccary carcass with tumpline attached for carrying. The epiphyte-stem binding that formerly attached the forelegs to the lower jaw and the hind legs to the forelegs has been cut (photo by D.W.F.; Estirón, 2013). The tumpline, tied to the upper jaw and the rump, is made from the inner bark of a tote tree (Eschweilera or Lecythis spp. [Lecythidaceae]), the preferred material for this purpose (compare with fig. 22).

FIGURE 18 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIGURE 18. Close-up of tapir-trap trigger stripped of camouflage (A), but with bamboo blade still sheathed with palm leaflets; and diagram of the trigger mechanism (B), with bamboo blade exposed.

FIG. 15 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 15. Adult skulls of five sympatric mustelid species illustrating taxonomic differences in size and shape: Galictis vittata (A, MUSM 15157), Eira barbara (B, MUSM 13149), Mustela africana (C, AMNH 61813), Pteronura brasiliensis (D, AMNH 74431), Lontra longicaudis (E, AMNH 98589). All illustrated specimens are from eastern Peru, but only MUSM 13149 and MUSM 15157 are from the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve.

FIG. 12 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 12. Dorsal views of adult skulls of Atelocynus microtis (A, AMNH 98639) and Speothos venaticus (B, AMNH 98560). Both specimens are from northeastern Peru, but neither is from the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve.

FIG. 11 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 11. Matses girl with pet two-toed sloth on the upper Quebrada Chobayacu, ca. 1975 (photo by Steven Romanoff).

FIG. 7 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 7. Dorsal and ventral cranial views of Bradypus variegatus infuscatus (A, B, AMNH 76497) and B. v. variegatus (C, D, AMNH 95105). Both skulls lack the premaxillae, which are only loosely attached in bradypodid sloths and are often lost in specimen preparation. Cranial sutures are fused in AMNH 76497, whereas most sutures persist in AMNH 95105 (a younger adult); the conspicuous shape differences between these specimens, however, are not age dependent.

FIG. 4 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 4. Ventral view of posterior palate of Dasypus novemcinctus (A, AMNH 268229) and D. pastasae (B, AMNH 268228). In D. novemcintus the lateral margins of the palatines are rounded, whereas the lateral palatine margins are keeled in D. pastasae.

FIG. 3 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 3. Crania of four armadillo species that occur in the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve, illustrating taxonomic differences in size and shape: Dasypus novemcinctus (A, AMNH 268229); D. pastasae (B, AMNH 268228); Cabassous unicinctus (C, AMNH 74113); Priodontes maximus (D, AMNH 93418). All illustrated specimens are adults, but AMNH 93418 is not from the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve.

FIG. 1 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 1. The Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve (shaded) in relation to surrounding geographical features of western Amazonia.

FIG. 14 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 14. Adult skulls of five sympatric felid species, illustrating taxonomic differences in size and shape: Puma concolor (A, AMNH 73221), Pu. yagouaroundi (B, AMNH 215137), Leopardus wiedii (C, AMNH 74428), L. pardalis (D, MUSM 13150), Panthera onca (E, AMNH 98683). All illustrated specimens are from western South America, but only MUSM 13150 is from the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve. Old adult male skulls of Pa. onca and L. pardalis can be substantially larger and proportionately wider than the young adults illustrated here.

FIG. 2 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 2. Faunal inventory sites and collecting localities within the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve (see appendix 2 for geographic coordinates and other information). Inset: Faunal inventory sites in or near the Tamshiyacu- Tahuayo watersheds (EBQB = Estación Biológica Quebrada Blanco).

FIG. 10 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 10. Collecting localities of specimens of Bradypus variegatus examined for this report. See appendix 3 for geographic coordinates.

FIG. 17 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 17. Tapir trap, ready for action near Estirón, 2017 (photo by D.W.F.). A flexible pole (a) is tightly lashed to a tree with an epiphyte-stem binding (b); a sharp bamboo blade (c, partially sheathed with palm leaflets) is firmly attached to the other end, which is bent away from the tree and held in place by a camouflaged trigger mechanism (d). The trigger mechanism (close-up in figure 18) is released by a trip-wire (e).

FIG. 16 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 16. Adult skulls of four sympatric procyonid species, illustrating taxonomic differences in size and shape: Potos flavus (A, AMNH 268249), Bassaricyon alleni (B, AMNH 98709), Nasua nasua (C, AMNH 76642), Procyon cancrivorus (D, AMNH 94247). All illustrated crania are from western South America, but only AMNH 268249 is from the Yavarí-Ucayali interfluve.

FIG. 22 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 22. Red brocket trussed for carrying (photo by Steven Romanoff; upper Quebrada Chobayacu, ca. 1975). Here the tumpline is made from stems of the ayaşh epiphyte (Heteropsis spp. [Araceae]), a less desirable material for this purpose than the inner bark of the tote tree (see. fig. 19).

FIG. 20 in Mammalian Diversity And Matses Ethnomammalogy In Amazonian Peru Part 2: Xenarthra, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, And Sirenia

FIG. 20. Use of the tumpline for carrying white-lipped peccary carcass (photo by D.W.F.; Estirón, 2013).