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Figure 11. Echinopora Lamarck, 1816 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 11. Echinopora Lamarck, 1816, has discrete corallites that bud extracalicularly, extensive coenosteum (≥ corallite diameter), medium-size (4–15 mm) and low-relief (<3 mm) calices, large (≥ 1/4 of calice width) spongy columellae, and weak/moderate paliform (uniaxial) lobes. Septal teeth are low (<0.3 mm) with medium spacing (0.3–1 mm) and multiaxial tips. Walls formed by partial septotheca and weak abortive septa. A–C, Echinopora lamellosa (Esper, 1795), type species of Echinopora; macromorphology, Echinopora rosularia Lamarck, 1816, holotype of Echinopora MNHN IK-2010-635, unknown locality (A); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype USNM 89851, Alofi, Niue. D–F, Echinopora horrida Dana, 1846; macromorphology, syntype USNM 162, Fiji (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 33956, Kepulauan Seribu, Indonesia. G, Echinopora mammiformis (Nemenzo, 1959); macromorphology, holotype UP C-99, Puerto Galera, the Philippines. H, I, Echinopora gemmacea (Lamarck, 1816); micromorphology, hypotype RMNH 17270, Watamu, Kenya (H); microstructure, hypotype USNM 1113168, Red Sea (I).

Figure 12 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 12. Erythrastrea Pichon, Scheer & Pillai in Scheer & Pillai, 1983, is phaceloid or flabello-meandroid, with equally thick costosepta spaced

Figure 8. Coelastrea Verrill, 1866 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 8. Coelastrea Verrill, 1866, has discrete corallites with double or fused walls, septa in ≥ four cycles (≥ 48 septa), regular free septa, and well-developed septal (multiaxial) lobes. Septal teeth with medium height (0.3–0.6 mm) and spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca and partial septotheca, with strong costal and septal medial lines. A, Coelastrea tenuis Verrill, 1866, type species of Coelastrea; macromorphology, holotype YPM IZ 476, unknown locality. B–F, Coelastrea aspera (Verrill, 1866); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), syntype USNM 402, Ryukyu Islands, Japan; macromorphology, syntype USNM 403, Ryukyu Islands, Japan (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 13844, Gulf of Aqaba, Israel. G–I, Coelastrea palauensis (Yabe & Sugiyama, 1936); macromorphology, holotype TIU 56631, Palau (G); micromorphology (H) and microstructure (I), hypotype RMNH 14084, New Caledonia.

Figure 1 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 1. Comparisons amongst recent classifications of reef corals examined in this study. Family level taxonomy follows Budd et al. (2012). See Stolarski & Roniewicz (2001) for comparisons with Vaughan & Wells (1943), Wells (1956), Alloiteau (1952), and Chevalier & Beauvais (1987).

Figure 9 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 9. Cyphastrea Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848a has discrete corallites that bud extracalicularly, small (<4 mm) and low-relief (<3 mm) calices, regular free septa, and compact columellae. Septal teeth are low (<0.3 mm) and narrowly spaced (<0.3 mm), with multiaxial tips; strong (pointed) granules scattered on septal face. Walls formed by dominant septotheca. A–C, Cyphastrea microphthalma (Lamarck, 1816), type species of Cyphastrea; macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2012–14002, unknown locality (A); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype RMNH 15111 (FA1035), southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia. D–F, Cyphastrea chalcidicum (Forskål, 1775); macromorphology, hypotype MTQ G61902, Orpheus Island, Australia (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 12787, Gulf of Aqaba, Israel. G–I, Cyphastrea serailia (Forskål, 1775); macromorphology, syntype ZMUC ANT-000367, Red Sea (G; photo by M. A. Krag); micromorphology (H) and microstructure (I), hypotype RMNH 15106, southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Figure 4. Astrea Lamarck, 1801 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 4. Astrea Lamarck, 1801, has discrete corallites that bud extracalicularly, medium-size (4–15 mm) and mediumrelief (3–6 mm) calices, septa in three cycles (24–36 septa), well-developed paliform (uniaxial) lobes, and spongy columellae. Septal teeth with low−medium height (≤ 0.6 mm) and medium spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca, partial septotheca, and weak abortive septa. A, Astrea rotulosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786), type species of Astrea; macromorphology, holotype GLAHM 104014, unknown locality (photo by KG Johnson). B–F, Astrea curta Dana, 1846; micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype MTQ G61882, Orpheus Island, Australia; macromorphology (D), micromorphology (E), and microstructure (F), syntype USNM 14, Fiji. G–I, Astrea annuligera Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849b; macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2010-699, Australia (G); micromorphology (H) and microstructure (I), hypotype RMNH 10718, Heron Island, Australia.

Figure 3. Merulina Ehrenberg, 1834 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 3. Merulina Ehrenberg, 1834, has uniserial corallites with few centres, fused walls, small (<4 mm) and lowrelief (<3 mm) calices, septa in

Figure 7. Caulastraea Dana, 1846 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 7. Caulastraea Dana, 1846, is phaceloid, with discrete corallites, equally thick costosepta spaced

Figure 10 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 10. Dipsastraea de Blainville, 1830, has discrete corallites that bud intracalicularly, equally thick costosepta, and spongy columellae. Septal teeth with medium height (0.3–0.6 mm) and spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca and partial septotheca, with transverse septal crosses. A–C, Dipsastraea favus (Forskål, 1775), type species of Dipsastraea; macromorphology, lectotype ZMUC ANT-000466, Red Sea (A); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype USNM 93662, Madang, Papua New Guinea. D, Dipsastraea amicorum (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849b); macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2010-470, Tongatapu, Tonga (photo by P. Lozouet). E, F, Dipsastraea mirabilis (Yabe & Sugiyama, 1941); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype USNM 93642, Madang, Papua New Guinea. G–I, Dipsastraea laddi (Wells, 1954); macromorphology (G), micromorphology (H), and microstructure (I), holotype USNM 44942, Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. J–L, Dipsastraea pallida (Dana, 1846); macromorphology, syntype USNM 30, Fiji (J); micromorphology (K) and microstructure (L), hypotype USNM 44952, Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands.

Figure 6 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 6. Boninastrea Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935, has uniserial corallites, fused walls, septa in <three cycles (<24 septa), unequally thick costosepta, rudimentary columellae, and abundant (vesicular) endotheca. A, B, Boninastrea boninensis Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935, the type and only living species of Boninastrea; macromorphology, holotype TIU 44970, Ogasawara Islands, Japan.

Figure 22 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 22. Pectinia de Blainville, 1825, has organically united corallites, extensive coenosteum (≥ corallite diameter), septa spaced

Figure 20. Paraclavarina Veron, 1985 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 20. Paraclavarina Veron, 1985: 179, is ramose and has uniserial corallites with few centres, fused walls, small (<4 mm) and low-relief (<3 mm) calices, septa in

Figure 21 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 21. Paramontastraea Huang & Budd, this study, has corallites that mostly bud extracalicularly, regular free septa, septa spaced> 11 septa per 5 mm, and well-developed paliform (uniaxial) lobes. Septal teeth are low (<0.3 mm) and narrowly spaced (<0.3 mm), with multiaxial tips. Walls formed by dominant septotheca and partial paratheca. A–C, Paramontastraea salebrosa (Nemenzo, 1959), type species of Paramontastraea; macromorphology, holotype UP C-192, Puerto Galera, the Philippines (A; photo by K. S. Luzon); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype UP P1L02158), Batangas, the Philippines. D, E, Paramontastraea serageldini (Veron, 2000); macromorphology, holotype MTQ G55844, Mahé, Seychelles (D); micromorphology, hypotype SIO Co2805, Mahé, Seychelles (E). F, Paramontastraea salebrosa (Nemenzo, 1959); microstructure, hypotype UP P1L02158, Batangas, the Philippines.

Figure 19 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 19. Oulophyllia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848a, has fused walls, medium-size (4–15 mm) and medium-relief (3–6 mm) calices, septa spaced

Figure 24 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 24. Favia, Diploria, and Pseudodiploria microstructure (transverse thin section): left column, whole corallite; middle column, wall; right column, columella. Favia, Diploria, and Pseudodiploria all have septothecal walls (w). In Pseudodiploria, there are also trabeculothecal components, and Pseudodiploria strigosa has abortive septa. Clusters of calcification centres (c) are well defined in Favia, moderately well defined in Diploria, and weak in Pseudodiploria; however, Pseudodiploria has better defined medial lines. Carinae are well developed in Favia, but not in the other two genera; thickening deposits are moderately developed in all three genera. A–C, Favia fragum (Esper, 1795); figured specimen = SUI122816 (FA1065), Bocas del Toro, Panama. D–F, Favia gravida (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = YPM9085, Rio Formoso, Pernambuco, Brazil. G–I, Diploria labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus, 1758); figured specimen = SUI122810 (FA1061), Bocas del Toro, Panama. J–L, Pseudodiploria strigosa (Dana, 1846); figured specimen = SUI122813 (FA1062), Bocas del Toro, Panama. M–O, Pseudodiploria clivosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786); figured specimen = SUI122807 (FA1060), Bocas del Toro, Panama.

Figure 25 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 25. Colpophyllia, Manicina, and Mussismilia microstructure (transverse thin section): left column, wall; middle column, corallite interior; right column, close-up of septa. Corallite walls (w) in Colpophyllia and Mussismilia are parathecal; whereas in Manicina they are septothecal with trabeculothecal elements. Trabeculothecal elements are also present in Mussismilia braziliensis and to a lesser extent in Mussismilia leptophylla. Moderately well-defined costoseptal medial lines (m) and well-developed carinae (cr) occur in all three genera. A–C, Colpophyllia natans (Houttuyn, 1772); figured specimen = SUI122802 (FA (FA1071), Bocas del Toro, Panama (A); SUI122804 (FA1100, J115), Discovery Bay, Jamaica (B, C). D–F, Manicina areolata (Linnaeus, 1758); figured specimen = SUI122822 (FA1067), Bocas del Toro, Panama. G–I, Mussismilia hartti (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = YPM4516, Maria Farinha, Pernambuco, Brazil. J–L, Mussismilia braziliensis (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = YPM9104, Santa Barbara Island, Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia, Brazil. M–O, Mussismilia leptophylla (Verrill, 1868); holotype = YPM1517A, Abrolhos Reef, Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia, Brazil.

Figure 22 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 22. Mussa and Scolymia microstructure (transverse thin section): left column, wall; middle column, mid-septum; right column, close-up of clusters. Both Mussa and Scolymia have parathecal walls (w); however, trabeculothecal elements and thickening deposits are better developed in Scolymia. Both genera form well-developed clusters of calcification centres (c) that cross medial lines. These clusters are more closely spaced in Scolymia. A–C, Mussa angulosa (Pallas, 1766); figured specimen = SUI102761 (FA1012), Bocas del Toro, Panama. D-F, Scolymia lacera (Pallas, 1766); figured specimen = USNM1090899, Bahia Concha, Colombia. G–I, Scolymia cubensis (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849); figured specimen = USNM84939, Maria Buena Bay, Jamaica. J–L, Scolymia wellsi (Laborel, 1967); figured specimen = USNM84926, Angel Reef, Tobago.

Figure 23 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 23. Isophyllia and Mycetophyllia microstructure (transverse thin section): left column, wall; middle column, mid-septum; right column, close-up of clusters. Both Isophyllia and Mycetophyllia have parathecal walls (w) with trabeculothecal elements, well-developed clusters of calcification centres (c) that cross medial lines, and reduced thickening deposits. A–C, Isophyllia sinuosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786); figured specimen = SUI102757 (FA1014), Bocas del Toro, Panama. D–F, Isophyllia rigida (Dana, 1846); figured specimen = SUI102752 (FA1009), Bocas del Toro, Panama. G–I, Mycetophyllia lamarckiana (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849); figured specimen = SUI102773 (FA1133), Discovery Bay, Jamaica. J–L, Mycetophyllia aliciae (Wells, 1973); figured specimen = SUI102768 (FA1005), Bocas del Toro, Panama. M–O, Mycetophyllia danaana? (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849); figured specimen = SUI102771 (FA1002), Bocas del Toro, Panama.

Figure 21 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 21. Colpophyllia, Manicina, and Mussismilia micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy): left column, wall; middle column, mid-septum; right column, columella. Colpophyllia, Manicina, and Mussismilia have paddle-shaped to tricorne teeth with elliptical bases orientated perpendicular to the septal plane. Tooth height is low (<0.3 mm) in Colpophyllia and Manicina, and medium to high (> 0.3 mm) in Mussismilia. The interarea of teeth is smooth in Manicina but horizontally banded in Colpophyllia and Mussismilia. Granules are spiked and aligned. A–C, Colpophyllia natans (Houttuyn, 1772); figured specimens = SUI122804 (FA1100) Discovery Bay, Jamaica (A); SUI122802 (FA1071), Bocas del Toro, Panama (B, C). D–F, Manicina areolata (Linnaeus, 1758); figured specimen = SUI122824 (FA1107), Bocas del Toro, Panama. G–I, Mussismilia hartti (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = YPM4516, Maria Farinha, Pernambuco, Brazil. J–L, Mussismilia braziliensis (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = YPM9104, Santa Barbara Island, Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia, Brazil. M–O, Mussismilia leptophylla (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = SUI99645 (FA1029), Abrolhos Reef, Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia, Brazil (M); YPM9087, Lixa Reef, Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia, Brazil. (N, O).

Figure 20 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 20. Favia, Diploria, and Pseudodiploria micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy): left column, wall; middle column, mid-septum; right column, columella. Favia, Diploria, and Pseudodiploria have paddle-shaped to tricorne teeth with elliptical bases orientated perpendicular to the septal plane. The interarea of teeth is smooth, and granules are spiked and aligned. Teeth in different septal cycles differ slightly in Favia, but are equal in Diploria and Pseudodiploria. A–C, Favia fragum (Esper, 1795); figured specimen = SUI122816 (FA1065), Bocas del Toro, Panama. D–F, Favia gravida (Verrill, 1868); figured specimen = YPM4518, Rio Grande Do Norte State, Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, Brazil. G–I, Diploria labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus, 1758); figured specimen = SUI122810 (FA1061), Bocas del Toro, Panama. J–L, Pseudodiploria strigosa (Dana, 1846); figured specimens = SUI122813 (FA1062), Bocas del Toro, Panama (J, K); SUI122815 (FA1103), Discovery Bay, Jamaica (L). M–O, Pseudodiploria clivosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786); figured specimen = SUI122807 (FA1060), Bocas del Toro, Panama.