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462 results for “InVEST”
Data from: Investment in territorial defence relates to recent reproductive success in common loons Gavia immer
As the value of a limited resource such as a territory increases, animals should invest more in the defence of that resource. Because reproductive success often depends on the quality of a breeding territory, reproductive success or failure may alter the perceived value of territory and affect an animal's investment in territorial defence. We used common loons (Gavia immer) to test the hypothesis that animals with recent breeding success would show stronger territorial defence than those with no recent breeding success. Surprisingly, successful loons responded less, not more, to a simulated intrusion. However, birds with success in the previous season also increased their territorial response as the breeding season progressed. In conjunction with past data showing that recently successful loons experience an increase in conspecific intrusions on their territories, we interpret our data to suggest that loons with recent success offset the cost of increased intrusions by adopting a more efficient strategy for territorial defence (e.g., limiting investment in resource defence until the time of the season when it is most critical).
Data from: Cross-fostering eggs reveals that female collared flycatchers adjust clutch sex ratios according to parental ability to invest in offspring
Across animal taxa, reproductive success is generally more variable and more strongly dependent upon body condition for males than for females; in such cases, parents able to produce offspring in above-average condition are predicted to produce sons, whereas parents unable to produce offspring in good condition should produce daughters. We tested this hypothesis in the collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) by cross-fostering eggs among nests and using the condition of foster young that parents raised to fledging as a functional measure of their ability to produce fit offspring. As predicted, females raising heavier-than-average foster fledglings with their social mate initially produced male-biased primary sex ratios, whereas those raising lighter-than-average foster fledglings produced female-biased primary sex ratios. Females also produced male-biased clutches when mated to males with large secondary sexual characters (wing patches), and tended to produce male-biased clutches earlier within breeding seasons relative to females breeding later. However, females did not adjust the sex of individuals within their clutches; sex was distributed randomly with respect to egg size, laying order, and paternity. Future research investigating the proximate mechanisms linking ecological contexts and the quality of offspring parents are able to produce with primary sex-ratio variation could provide fundamental insight into the evolution of context-dependent sex-ratio adjustment.
Data from: How maternal investment varies with environmental factors and the age and physiological state of wild tsetse Glossina pallidipes and Glossina morsitans morsitans
Theory suggests females should optimize resource allocation across reproductive bouts to maximize lifetime reproduction, balancing current and future reproductive efforts according to physiological state and projected survival and reproduction. Tests of these ideas focus on long-lived vertebrates: few measure age-related reproductive output in iteroparous invertebrates, or partition reserves between those allocated to offspring versus mothers. We investigated how maternal age, and environmental and physiological factors influence reproductive investment in wild tsetse, Glossina pallidipes Austen and G. morsitans morsitans Westwood. Tsetse provide a tractable system to measure reproductive allocation. Females exhibit high maternal investment, producing single, large offspring that rely exclusively on maternal reserves. We find that mothers in better physiological condition and experiencing cooler temperatures produce larger offspring. Pupal size increases significantly but weakly with age. In both species, females with less fat invest proportionately more in offspring. Post-partum fat decreases in flies with badly frayed wings: poor flight capability may limit their feeding efficiency, or they may sacrifice more reserves as a terminal investment. Our results support evidence that offspring size increases with maternal size, investment depends on the environment, and females with lower chances of future reproduction invest more into current offspring. We discuss the implications of maternal effects for predicting vector population responses to environmental change.
Data from: Male mealworm beetles increase resting metabolic rate under terminal investment
Harmful parasite infestation can cause energetically costly behavioural and immunological responses, with the potential to reduce host fitness and survival. It has been hypothesized that the energetic costs of infection cause resting metabolic rate (RMR) to increase. Furthermore, under terminal investment theory, individuals exposed to pathogens should allocate resources to current reproduction when life expectancy is reduced, instead of concentrating resources on an immune defence. In this study, we activated the immune system of Tenebrio molitor males via insertion of nylon monofilament, conducted female preference tests to estimate attractiveness of male odours and assessed RMR and mortality. We found that attractiveness of males coincided with significant down-regulation of their encapsulation response against a parasite-like intruder. Activation of the immune system increased RMR only in males with heightened odour attractiveness and that later suffered higher mortality rates. The results suggest a link between high RMR and mortality and support terminal investment theory in T. molitor.
Data from: Dopamine disruption increases cleanerfish cooperative investment in novel client partners
Social familiarization is a process of gaining knowledge that results from direct or indirect participation in social events. Cooperative exchanges are thought to be conditional upon familiarity with others. Indeed, individuals seem to prefer to engage with those that have previously interacted with them, which are more accurate predictors of reward than novel partners. On the other hand, highly social animals do seek novelty. Truth is that the physiological bases underlying how familiarity and novelty may affect cooperative decision-making are still rather obscure. Here, we provide the first experimental evidence that the level of the dopaminergic influence in cooperative exchanges is constrained to mechanisms of social familiarization and novelty in a cleanerfish, Labroides dimidiatus. Cleaners were tested against familiar and novel Ctenochaetus striatus surgeonfish (a common client species) in laboratorial conditions, and were found to spend more time providing physical contact (also referred to as tactile stimulation) to familiar fish clients. Cleaners use tactile stimulation as a way to reduce the risk of a non-rewarding outcome, a behavioural response that is even more pronounced when blocking dopamine (DA) D1 receptors. We discovered that the influence of DA disruption on cleaners' provision of physical contact was dependent on the level of familiarity with its partner, being highly exacerbated whenever the client is novel, and unnoticed when dealing with a familiar one. Our findings demonstrate that DA mediation influences the valuation of partner stimuli and the enhancing investment in novel partners, mechanisms that are similar to other vertebrates, including humans.
Data from: Comparative support for the expensive tissue hypothesis: big brains are correlated with smaller gut and greater parental investment in Lake Tanganyika cichlids
The brain is one of the most energetically expensive organs in the vertebrate body. Consequently, the energetic requirements of encephalization are suggested to impose considerable constraints on brain size evolution. Three main hypotheses concerning how energetic constraints might affect brain evolution predict covariation between brain investment and i) investment into other costly tissues, ii) overall metabolic rate, and iii) reproductive investment. To date, these hypotheses have mainly been tested in homeothermic animals and the existing data are inconclusive. However, there are good reasons to believe that energetic limitations might play a role in large-scale patterns of brain size evolution also in ectothermic vertebrates. Here we test these hypotheses in a group of ectothermic vertebrates, the Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes. After controlling for the effect of shared ancestry and confounding ecological variables, we find a negative association between brain size and gut size. Furthermore, we find that the evolution of a larger brain is accompanied by increased reproductive investment into egg size and parental care. Our results indicate that the energetic costs of encephalization may be an important general factor involved in the evolution of brain size also in ectothermic vertebrates.
Data from: Comparison of reproductive investment in native and non-native populations of common wall lizards reveals sex differences in adaptive potential.
Non-native animals can encounter very different environments than those they are adapted to. Functional changes in morphology, physiology and life-history following introduction show that organisms can adapt both fast and efficiently. It remains unclear, however, if female reproductive characters and male sexually selected behaviour show the same adaptive potential. Furthermore, the invasion success and evolutionary trajectory of non-native species might often depend on the ability of the sexes to coordinate shifts in characters associated with reproductive strategy. The common wall lizard, Podarcis muralis, has been repeatedly introduced from Southern Europe to England over the past 80 years. Lizards in England experience a cool, seasonal climate that effectively restricts recruitment to the first clutch of the season, whereas in their native range up to three clutches per season recruit. As a consequence, both females and males in non-native populations should benefit from reducing or even eliminating their reproductive investment in second clutches. Using a combination of field data and experiments, we show that non-native females produce relatively larger and heavier first seasonal clutches and smaller and lighter second seasonal clutches compared to native females. In contrast, non-native and native males do not differ in their territorial and sexual behaviour later in the season. An adaptive shift in male seasonal reproductive investment may be constrained because males use breeding females as cues for sexual behaviour. If this is so, we expect a general pattern across climatic regimes whereby female reproductive investment evolves first, with responses in males lagging behind.
Combined cues of male competition influence spermatozoal investment in a moth
<ol> <li><span>Male animals usually raise their sperm allocation after detecting sperm competition risk. To date, only a few studies have investigated the cues used by males to sense and respond to rivals. Yet, it is still largely unknown whether males respond to single or combined cues and whether they can increase their lifetime spermatozoal investment<b> </b>after a perception of rival cue(s). </span></li> <li><span>Here we postulate that males increase ejaculation and production of sperm after detecting combined cues from rivals, but such response quickly diminishes after the cues are removed. We exposed newly emerged and virgin focal males of the moth <i>Ephestia kuehniella</i> to various rival cues and then permanently removed the cues. We introduced a virgin female to an exposed focal male and an unexposed focal male, respectively, per day and counted the number of sperm transferred by the focal males in each mating and recovered in their body after death. </span></li> <li><span>We demonstrate that males significantly increased their lifetime sperm allocation and production after premating detection of either single (acoustic or chemical) or combined cues (acoustic + chemical, or acoustic + chemical + tactile) from their rivals with combined cues (acoustic + chemical + tactile) somewhat strengthening such response in eupyrene production. </span></li> <li><span>The number of sperm ejaculated by males significantly decreased over successive matings in their lifetime regardless of whether they were exposed to rival cues, but the decline was significantly faster in rival-cue exposed males than in unexposed ones. This suggests that the increase of spermatogenesis cannot fully compensate for that of sperm expenditure in response to rival cues. </span></li> <li><span>We show that 10-h premating rival exposure was sufficient to maximise males' response in sperm ejaculation and production. The impact of the rival perception on sperm transfer persisted for most of males' reproductive life, suggesting that the moth males have a long-term memory of sperm competition risk experienced in the early adulthood. </span></li> </ol>
Data from: How can we get close to zero?: the potential contribution of biomedical prevention and the investment framework towards an effective response to HIV
Background: In 2011 an Investment Framework was proposed that described how the scale-up of key HIV interventions could dramatically reduce new HIV infections and deaths in low and middle income countries by 2015. This framework included ambitious coverage goals for prevention and treatment services resulting in a reduction of new HIV infections by more than half. However, it also estimated a leveling in the number of new infections at about 1 million annually after 2015. Methods: We modeled how the response to AIDS can be further expanded by scaling up antiretroviral treatment (ART) within the framework provided by the 2013 WHO treatment guidelines. We further explored the potential contributions of new prevention technologies: 'Test and Treat', pre-exposure prophylaxis and an HIV vaccine. Findings: Immediate aggressive scale up of existing approaches including the 2013 WHO guidelines could reduce new infections by 80%. A 'Test and Treat' approach could further reduce new infections. This could be further enhanced by a future highly effective pre-exposure prophylaxis and an HIV vaccine, so that a combination of all four approaches could reduce new infections to as low as 80,000 per year by 2050 and annual AIDS deaths to 260,000. Interpretation: In a set of ambitious scenarios, we find that immediate implementation of the 2013 WHO antiretroviral therapy guidelines could reduce new HIV infections by 80%. Further reductions may be achieved by moving to a 'Test and Treat' approach, and eventually by adding a highly effective pre-exposure prophylaxis and an HIV vaccine, if they become available.
Data from: Sons do not take advantage of a head start: parity in herring gull offspring sex ratios despite greater initial investment in males
Skewed adult sex ratios sometimes occur in populations of free-living animals yet the proximate mechanisms, timing of sex-biases, and the selective agents contributing to skew remain a source of debate with contradictory evidence from different systems. We investigated potential mechanisms contributing to sex biases in a population of herring gulls with an apparent female skew in the adult population. Theory predicts that skewed adult sex ratios will adaptively lead to skewed offspring sex ratios to restore balance in the effective breeding population. Parents may also adaptively bias offspring sex ratios to increase their own fitness in response to environmental factors. Therefore, we expected to detect skewed sex ratios either at hatching or at fledging as parents invest differentially in offspring of different sexes. We sampled complete clutches (n = 336 chicks) at hatching to quantify potential skews in sex ratios by position in the hatch order, time of season, year, and nesting context (nest density), finding no departure from equal sex ratios at hatching related to any of these factors. Further, we sampled 258 chicks at near-fledging to investigate potential sex biases in survival at the chick stage. Again, no biases in sex ratios were recorded. Male offspring were favored in this population via greater maternal investment in eggs carrying male embryos and greater parental provisioning of male offspring which reached greater sizes by fledging. Despite the advantages realized by male offspring, females were equally as likely to fledge as males. Thus, biased adult sex ratios apparently arise in the post-fledging and pre-recruitment stage in our population.
Data from: Tree species diversity alters plant defence investment in an experimental forest plantation in Southern Mexico
The effects of plant species diversity on plant traits conferring herbivore resistance (e.g., chemical defences), as well as the mechanisms underlying such effects, have received little attention. One potential mechanism for diversity effects on plant defences is that increased plant growth at high diversity could lead to reduced investment in defences via growth-defence trade-offs. We measured tree growth (diameter at breast height) and collected leaves for quantification of total phenolics on 2.5-year old plants of six tropical tree species (N = 597 plants) in a young experimental plantation in southern Mexico. Selected plants were distributed across 23 plots (21 x 21 m each) classified as monocultures of one species (N = 13, 2-3 plots per species) or polycultures (N = 10) represented by mixtures of four out of the six species. We found a significant negative effect of tree species diversity on total phenolics, where polycultures exhibited a 13 percent lower mean concentration than monocultures. However, there was marked variation among tree species in diversity effects on defences, where some species exhibited strong reductions in phenolics in mixtures, whereas others were unresponsive. Further, we found no effect of tree species diversity on growth and results indicated that the negative effect of diversity on chemical defences was not mediated by a growth-defence trade-off. These results demonstrate that tree diversity can alter investment in chemical defences in long-lived tree species, which has important implications for predicting effects on consumers and ecosystem function.
Data from: Male and female helper effects on maternal investment and adult survival in red-winged fairy-wrens
Despite its importance for the evolution of cooperative breeding, it has proven difficult to determine whether helpers improve their recipients' fitness. Helpers affect fitness in multiple ways, both positive and negative, but their effects can also be concealed through reduced maternal investment. Furthermore, determining the direction of causation is difficult, as helper presence may indicate a productive territory, rather than high productivity indicating an effect of help. In cooperatively breeding red-winged fairy-wrens (Malurus elegans) groups reduce care when they have male helpers, but groups with female helpers do not, so nestlings receive more food. Thus our predictions vary with helper sex rather than helper number, and by studying within-group changes with regard to group composition we separate phenotypically plastic responses from among-group correlations. Females did not reduce egg size in response to an increasing number of female helpers. However, more male or female helpers allowed females to lay larger clutches and more female helpers reduced re-nesting intervals. There was mixed support for a benefit of load lightening: Helpers, but not breeders, gained survival benefits with increasing number of male helpers. However, helper survival decreased with the number of female helpers, suggesting that increased competition counterbalanced these male helper benefits. We also found consistent among-group differences, which would have erroneously been interpreted as helper effects had we not disentangled the within-group changes with regard to group composition. This study highlights the importance of assessing carers' benefits in relation to both group composition and size, and of investigating the within-individual plastic response of helper effects.
Data from: Population density and structure drive differential investment in pre- and postmating sexual traits in frogs
Sexual selection theory predicts a trade-off between premating (ornaments and armaments) and postmating (testes and ejaculates) sexual traits, assuming that growing and maintaining these traits is costly and that total reproductive investments are limited. The number of males in competition, the reproductive gains from investing in premating sexual traits, and the level of sperm competition are all predicted to influence how males allocate their finite resources to these traits. Yet, empirical examination of these predictions is currently scarce. Here, we studied relative expenditure on pre- and postmating sexual traits among frog species varying in their population density, operational sex ratio and the number of competing males for each clutch of eggs. We found that the intensifying struggle to monopolize fertilizations as more and more males clasp the same female to fertilize her eggs shifts male reproductive investment toward sperm production and away from male weaponry. This shift, which is mediated by population density and the associated level of male–male competition, likely also explains the trade-off between pre- and postmating sexual traits in our much broader sample of anuran species. Our results highlight the power of such a multi-level approach in resolving the evolution of traits and allocation trade-offs.
Data from: Egg size investment in superb fairy-wrens: helper effects are modulated by climate
Natural populations might exhibit resilience to changing climatic conditions if they already show adaptive flexibility in their reproductive strategies. In cooperative breeders, theory predicts that mothers with helpers should provide less care when environmental conditions are favourable, but maintain high investment when conditions are challenging. Here, we test for evidence of climate-mediated flexibility in maternal investment in the cooperatively breeding superb fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus. We focus on egg size because in this species egg size influences offspring size, and females reduce egg investment when there are helpers at the nest. We report that females lay larger eggs during dry, hot conditions. However, the effect of temperature is modulated by the presence of helpers: the average egg size of females with helpers is reduced during cooler conditions but increased during hot conditions relative to females without helpers. This appears to reflect plasticity in egg investment rather than among female differences. Analysis of maternal survival suggests that helped females are better able to withstand the costs of breeding in hot conditions than females without helpers. Our study suggests that females can use multiple, independent cues to modulate egg investment flexibly in a variable environment.
Data from: Cooperative investment in public goods is kin directed in communal nests of social birds
The tragedy of the commons predicts social collapse when public goods are jointly exploited by individuals attempting to maximise their fitness at the expense of other social group members. However, animal societies have evolved many times despite this vulnerability to exploitation by selfish individuals. Kin selection offers a solution to this social dilemma, but in large social groups mean relatedness is often low. Sociable weavers (Philetairus socius) live in large colonies that share the benefits of a massive communal nest, which requires individual investment for construction and maintenance. Here, we show that despite low mean kinship within colonies, relatives are spatially and socially clustered and that nest-building males have higher local relatedness to other colony members than do non-building males. Alternative hypotheses received little support, so we conclude that the benefits of the public good are shared with kin and that cooperative investment is, despite the large size and low relatedness of these communities, kin-directed.
Data from: Social complexity influences brain investment and neural operation costs in ants
The metabolic expense of producing and operating neural tissue required for adaptive behaviour is considered a significant selective force in brain evolution. In primates, brain size correlates positively with group size, presumably owing to the greater cognitive demands of complex social relationships in large societies. Social complexity in eusocial insects is also associated with large groups, as well as collective intelligence and division of labour among sterile workers. However, superorganism phenotypes may lower cognitive demands on behaviourally specialized workers resulting in selection for decreased brain size and/or energetic costs of brain metabolism. To test this hypothesis, we compared brain investment patterns and cytochrome oxidase (COX) activity, a proxy for ATP usage, in two ant species contrasting in social organization. Socially complex Oecophylla smaragdina workers had larger brain size and relative investment in the mushroom bodies (MBs)—higher order sensory processing compartments—than the more socially basic Formica subsericea workers. Oecophylla smaragdina workers, however, had reduced COX activity in the MBs. Our results suggest that as in primates, ant group size is associated with large brain size. The elevated costs of investment in metabolically expensive brain tissue in the socially complex O. smaragdina, however, appear to be offset by decreased energetic costs.
Data from: Male age mediates reproductive investment and response to paternity assurance
Theory predicts that male response to reduced paternity will depend on male state and interactions between the sexes. If there is little chance of reproducing again, then males should invest heavily in current offspring, regardless of their share in paternity. We tested this by manipulating male age and paternity assurance in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. We found older males invested more in both mating effort and parental effort than younger males. Furthermore, male age, a component of male state, mediated male response to perceived paternity. Older males provided more prenatal care, whereas younger males provided less prenatal care, when perceived paternity was low. Adjustments in male care, however, did not influence selection acting indirectly on parents, through offspring performance. This is because females adjusted their care in response to the age of their partner, providing less care when paired with older males than younger males. As a result offspring, performance did not differ between treatments. Our study shows, for the first time, that a male state variable is an important modifier of paternity–parental care trade-offs and highlights the importance of social interactions between males and females during care in determining male response to perceived paternity.
Data from: Senescence impacts reproduction and maternal investment in bottlenose dolphins
Reproductive senescence is evident across many mammalian species. An emerging perspective considers components of reproductive senescence as evolutionarily distinct phenomena: fertility senescence and maternal-effect senescence. While fertility senescence is regarded as the aging of reproductive physiology, maternal-effect senescence pertains to the declining capacity to provision and rear surviving offspring due to age. Both contribute to reproductive failure in utero making it difficult to differentiate between the two prenatally in the wild. We investigated both components in a long-lived mammal with prolonged maternal care through three parameters: calf survival, interbirth interval (IBI), and lactation period. We provide clear evidence for reproductive senescence in a wild population of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) using 34+ years of longitudinal data on 229 adult females and 562 calves. Calf survival decreased with maternal age, and calves with older mothers had lower survival than predicted by birth order, suggesting maternal-effect senescence. Both lactation period and IBIs increased with maternal age, and IBIs increased regardless of calf mortality, indicating interactions between fertility and maternal-effect senescence. Of calves that survived to weaning, last-born calves weaned later than earlier-born calves, evidence of terminal investment, a mitigating strategy given reduced reproductive value caused by either components of reproductive senescence.
Data from: Energetic investment associated with vitellogenesis induces an oxidative cost of reproduction
1. Oxidative stress is a potential cost of reproduction, but conclusive evidence for this relationship is lacking. The goal of this study was to serially assess across a seasonal gradient the relationship between reproduction, circulating plasma energy metabolites, and oxidative state. 2. Here we examine a study animal ideally suited to test for the oxidative costs of reproduction: The Allen Cays Rock Iguana. Female rock iguanas reproduce at varying frequencies, often skipping years, allowing for a comparison between reproductive and non-reproductive females during the same narrow, annual breeding season. This feature of iguana life-history enabled us to address not just sex and seasonal differences in physiology, but also potential oxidative costs of reproduction in females. 3. Male and female iguanas were sampled during the early (vitellogenic), late (gravid), and post-reproductive seasons. Ultrasound examinations were performed on females to quantify reproductive investment, and blood samples were collected for physiology assays, which included reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs), antioxidants, triglycerides, free glycerol, and glucose. 4. The early reproductive season was characterized by significant increases in reproductive female's triglycerides, free glycerol, and oxidative stress compared to late and post-reproductive periods and non-reproductive females and males during all sampling periods. Antioxidants were significantly elevated during the early reproductive season for reproductive females, non-reproductive females, and males when compared to late and post-season. Follicle number in early reproductive females was positively related to d-ROMs, triglycerides, and free glycerol, negatively related to antioxidants, and showed no relationship with glucose. Measures of oxidative stress, d-ROMs and oxidative index were positively correlated with circulating levels of the lipid metabolite free glycerol during the early reproductive period, but this relationship weakened in the late season and disappeared in the post-season. 5. Broadly, this study supports the hypothesis that the relationship between reproduction and oxidative stress is driven by energy investment, being greatest during early reproduction when vitellogenesis is occurring.
Data from: Environmental conditions shape the temporal pattern of investment in reproduction and survival
The relationship between environmental stress exposure and ageing is likely to vary with stressor severity, life history stage, and the time scale over which effects are measured. Such factors could influence whether stress exposure accelerates or slows the ageing process, but their interactions have not previously been experimentally investigated. We found that experimental exposure of zebra finches to mildly challenging environmental circumstances from young to old adulthood, which increased exposure to stress hormones, reduced breeding performance during early adulthood, but had positive effects when individuals were bred in old adulthood. This difference was not due to selective mortality, since the effects were evident within individuals, and no evidence of habituation in the response to the stressor was found. The more stressful environment had no effects on survival during young or old adulthood, but substantially improved survival during middle age. Changes in the effects at different ages could be due to the duration and nature of the challenging exposure, or to variation in coping capacity or strategy with age. These results show that living under challenging environmental circumstances can influence ageing trajectories in terms of both reproductive performance and longevity. Our results provide experimental support for the emerging idea that stress exposure needs to be optimised rather than minimised to obtain the best health outcomes.
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