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Fig. 15 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 15. Nasal articulations with maxillae in juvenile Gorgosaurus libratus (nasals at top; TMP 86.144.1) adult Tyrannosaurus rex (nasals in middle and maxilla below; TMP 98.86.01; cast of BHI 2033). The interlocking, staircase−style articulation in the adult Tyrannosaurus rex efficiently transmitted compressional forces and increased the shear strength of the articulation. Dashed lines show the extent of the staircased articulation, and the solid line indicates a projection on the nasals and the corresponding depression in the maxilla.
Fig. 11 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 11. Top and side views of theropod crania used to reconstruct crosssectional shapes, and oblique views of reconstructed plinge cross−sections for each cranium. Second moments of area of the plinges were calculated as indices of bending and torsional cranium strengths. A–D, carnosaurs; E–G, tyrannosaurids.
Fig. 15 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 15. Nasal articulations with maxillae in juvenile Gorgosaurus libratus (nasals at top; TMP 86.144.1) adult Tyrannosaurus rex (nasals in middle and maxilla below; TMP 98.86.01; cast of BHI 2033). The interlocking, staircase−style articulation in the adult Tyrannosaurus rex efficiently transmitted compressional forces and increased the shear strength of the articulation. Dashed lines show the extent of the staircased articulation, and the solid line indicates a projection on the nasals and the corresponding depression in the maxilla.
Fig. 14. A in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 14. A. Functional integration of strengths of the tyrannosaurid head skeleton when subjected to feeding forces. Dark arrows represent direct influences of forces on structures, and direct integration of structural strengths. Light arrows represent less direct influences of structures on one another. B. Correlated progression of tyrannosauroid feeding adaptations mapped onto a tyrannosauroid cladogram after Xu et al. (2004) and Holtz (2004). Arrow at left represents phyletic increases that likely occurred at all ingroup nodes except G. libratus + A. sarcophagus.
Fig. 13 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 13. Strength indicators computed for theropod crania under mediolateral (A), dorsoventral (B), and torsional (C) loadings. Tyrannosaurid crania are invariably stronger than those of carnosaurs for a given skull length. See Appendix 1 for labels.
Fig. 13 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 13. Strength indicators computed for theropod crania under mediolateral (A), dorsoventral (B), and torsional (C) loadings. Tyrannosaurid crania are invariably stronger than those of carnosaurs for a given skull length. See Appendix 1 for labels.
Fig. 12 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 12. Schematic trapezoidal cross−sections of theropod crania, with geometry and expressions for computing second moments of area. A. Determining moments with respect to the horizontal (Z) axis. The width of a strip of area is a function of its vertical (Y) coordinate. B. Determining moments with respect to the vertical (Y) axis; the cross−section is partitioned into two central rectangular areas, and two lateral triangular regions.
Fig. 14. A in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 14. A. Functional integration of strengths of the tyrannosaurid head skeleton when subjected to feeding forces. Dark arrows represent direct influences of forces on structures, and direct integration of structural strengths. Light arrows represent less direct influences of structures on one another. B. Correlated progression of tyrannosauroid feeding adaptations mapped onto a tyrannosauroid cladogram after Xu et al. (2004) and Holtz (2004). Arrow at left represents phyletic increases that likely occurred at all ingroup nodes except G. libratus + A. sarcophagus.
Fig. 7 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 7. CT−scanned cross−sections of fused tyrannosaurid nasals, showing greater vaulting and higher cross−sectional areas of bone in larger individuals. A. Gorgosaurus libratus (juvenile: TMP 86.144.1). B. Gorgosaurus libratus (subadult: TMP 86.64.1). C. Daspletosaurus torosus (adult: TMP 98.48.1). Numbers 1–4: cross−sections at topologically similar positions, from posterior to anterior.
Fig. 2 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 2. Comparison of vertical bending strengths of adult theropod dentaries, graphed as mid−dentary section modulus versus mandible length (data from Therrien et al. 2005). Lines fitted by least squares regression, by log transformed values for the tyrannosaurid data. Carnosaur dentary strengths scale linearly with dentary length, while tyrannosaurid dentary strengths show an exponential increase. The tyrannosaurid dentaries are stronger than those of carnosaurs for a given mandible length, indicating a relatively stronger bite. See Appendix 1 for specimen labels; Gc, Giganotosaurus carolinii.
Fig. 11 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 11. Top and side views of theropod crania used to reconstruct crosssectional shapes, and oblique views of reconstructed plinge cross−sections for each cranium. Second moments of area of the plinges were calculated as indices of bending and torsional cranium strengths. A–D, carnosaurs; E–G, tyrannosaurids.
Fig. 3 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 3. Comparisons of mediolateral (A, B) and anteroposterior (C, D) strengths of tyrannosaurid and non−tyrannosaurid theropod maxillary teeth, plotted against skull length. Regressions are by least squares, on log transformed data for the tyrannosaurids. Trend lines are allometric in the tyannosaurids but linear in non−tyrannosaurids. Tooth strengths of Tyrannosaurus rex are much higher than in any other examined taxon. Starting points of the small arrows indicate the position of the juvenile T. rex (TrJ). See Appendix 1 for other specimen labels.
Theropod specimens used for tooth, nasal, and cranial strength calculations. Symbols used in diagrams are given in parenthe− ses for each specimen, followed by its specimen number and/or literature source. in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Theropod specimens used for tooth, nasal, and cranial strength calculations. Symbols used in diagrams are given in parenthe− ses for each specimen, followed by its specimen number and/or literature source.
Fig. 7 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 7. CT−scanned cross−sections of fused tyrannosaurid nasals, showing greater vaulting and higher cross−sectional areas of bone in larger individuals. A. Gorgosaurus libratus (juvenile: TMP 86.144.1). B. Gorgosaurus libratus (subadult: TMP 86.64.1). C. Daspletosaurus torosus (adult: TMP 98.48.1). Numbers 1–4: cross−sections at topologically similar positions, from posterior to anterior.
Fig. 13 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 13. Strength indicators computed for theropod crania under mediolateral (A), dorsoventral (B), and torsional (C) loadings. Tyrannosaurid crania are invariably stronger than those of carnosaurs for a given skull length. See Appendix 1 for labels.
Fig. 15 in Fused and vaulted nasals of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs: Implications for cranial strength and feeding mechanics
Fig. 15. Nasal articulations with maxillae in juvenile Gorgosaurus libratus (nasals at top; TMP 86.144.1) adult Tyrannosaurus rex (nasals in middle and maxilla below; TMP 98.86.01; cast of BHI 2033). The interlocking, staircase−style articulation in the adult Tyrannosaurus rex efficiently transmitted compressional forces and increased the shear strength of the articulation. Dashed lines show the extent of the staircased articulation, and the solid line indicates a projection on the nasals and the corresponding depression in the maxilla.
Box 3 in Assessing dinosaur growth patterns: a microscopic revolution
Box 3. Making dinosaur growth curves Longevity estimates are coupled with size data (from direct measures of length or mass estimates from bone circumferences) for dinosaurs to make age-versus-size growth curves. In Figure Ia, femur length was used for the sauropod Janeschia to produce a simple growth curve. This plot was used for determining the age of sexual maturity (hypothesized as occurring when the growth rates initially slowed) and somatic maturity (full adult size as indicated by the asymptote [23]). The curve can also be used to assess linear growth rates at various points in development. (Redrawn and reproduced with permission from [23].) Age-versus-mass growth curves, such as the one shown in Figure Ib for North American tyrannosaurs [12], are generally sigmoidal in shape, except in cases where older adult animals are not represented and the asymptote is absent. Timing to somatic maturity, mass standardized maximal growth rates and other life-history parameters can be assessed and used in both interspecific comparative and evolutionary contexts from this type of curve. (Redrawn and reproduced with permission from [12].)
Box 4 in Assessing dinosaur growth patterns: a microscopic revolution
Box 4. Comparison of maximal growth rates in dinosaurs to those in extant vertebrates In Figure I, Maximal growth rates for dinosaurs were deduced from age-mass growth curves for six dinosaurs represented by lettered boxes (from smallest to largest: Shuvuuia (Sh), Psittacosaurus (P), SYntarsus (Sy), MassospondYlus (Ms), Maiasaura (Ma) and Apatosaurus (A); [10]). These data were then plotted with similar data for major living vertebrate clades [5]. A regression line was fitted to the dinosaur data spanning the bounds of known dinosaur size. The results show that whole-organism growth rates for dinosaurs were faster than those of living reptiles of equivalent size. This finding supports qualitative conclusions to the same effect based on tissue-level signal and the reasoning underlying Amprino's rule [11,26]. However the data do not conform to theories that dinosaurs grew in the same manner as living birds, mammals [6], or at rates between reptiles and birds and/or mammals [8]. Rather, dinosaur growth rates show a unique scaling trajectory. The regression [Maximal growth rate 0.002215 (M)0.925; R2 0.961] also reveals that small = adult = size in dinosaurs involved decreases in absolute growth rates [10]. One caveat of this being the first plot of its kind is that only a small sampling of species was available at the time. The addition of further data, particularly for large sauropods, where Sander [23] has found what appear to be considerably lower growth rates than those reported by Curry [25], might force reanalysis of the aforementioned trends. (Redrawn and reproduced with permission from [10].)
Fig. 1 in Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs
Fig. 1. Rough outline showing scale of size of Tyrannosaurus rex. By W. D. M. The association of the small forearm is probably incorrect.
Figure 16 in The anatomy of the basal ornithischian dinosaur Eocursor parvus from the lower Elliot Formation (Late Triassic) of South Africa
Figure 16. Eocursor parvus, holotype (SAM-PK-K8025). Right tibia. Proximal end in medial (A), lateral (C), and proximal (E) views. Distal end in medial (B), lateral (D) and distal (F) views. Abbreviations: acc, accessory condyle; astf, astragular facet; astnt, notch for ascending process of astragalus; cnc, cnemial crest; fibc, fibular condyle; inn, insisura tibialis; inncon, inner condyle; innt, intercondylar notch; lm, lateral malleolus; mm, medial malleolus. Scale bars = 10 mm.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
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International Brain Laboratory public data
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OpenNeuro
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