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Figure 4. PCA axes 1–2 in Hybridization patterns in two contact zones of grass snakes reveal a new Central European snake species

Figure 4. PCA axes 1–2 for microsatellite data. Samples are coloured according to mitochondrial lineages (top) or STRUCTURE clusters (bottom). Admixed individuals were identified according to HYBRIDLAB results. PCAs for the yellow and red lineages correspond to the samples from Fig. 3c. Non-native samples were excluded. The oval outlines represent 95% confidential intervals. For helvetica and the eastern lineages (left) the x axis explains 16.6% and the y axis 4.5% of variation. For the eastern lineages (right) the x axis explains 3.8% and the y axis 2.9% of variation. Analyses along axes 1–3 produced nearly identical results (see Supplementary Fig. S4).

Figure 3 in Hybridization patterns in two contact zones of grass snakes reveal a new Central European snake species

Figure 3. Genotypic structuring of grass snakes. On the left, the mitochondrial lineage of each sample is shown above the STRUCTURE diagrams, with haplotypes of Natrix natrix helvetica indicated in blue and haplotypes of the eastern lineages in colours corresponding to Fig. 1 (yellow, red, lilac, grey, green; white = missing data). In (a), orange and dark blue corresponds to non-native snakes (Italian lineages). Samples in STRUCTURE diagrams are arranged within each country from west to east (a) or from north to south (b,c). In STRUCTURE diagrams, an individual sample is represented by a vertical bar reflecting its inferred ancestry. In (a), the blue cluster corresponds to N. n. helvetica and the light green cluster to all other lineages. The isolated red/light green block (first row) represents the allochthonous population from the Neander valley, Germany. In (b), samples with genetic impact of helvetica are excluded. The pink cluster corresponds to samples from the yellow and red lineages. Brown percentages indicate genetic impact of adjacent lineages (lilac, grey, green). In (c) only samples from the yellow and red lineages and their hybrids, without genetic signatures of other lineages, were processed. Country abbreviations: Ba – Balkans (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece), CH – Switzerland, CRO – Croatia, CZ – Czech Republic, FI – Finland, H – Hungary, N – Norway, NL – Netherlands, PL – Poland, S – Sweden. Maps were created using ARCGIS 10.2 (http://www.esri.com/arcgis) and ADOBE ILLUSTRATOR CS6 (http://www.adobe. com/products/ illustrator.html).

Figure 1 in Hybridization patterns in two contact zones of grass snakes reveal a new Central European snake species

Figure 1. Distribution of mitochondrial lineages of 1,580 grass snakes used in this study. Total sample size of each clade shown in the legend. Eight allochthonous grass snakes with haplotypes of Italian lineages caught in southern Great Britain and Hesse, Germany, not shown. Map was created using ARCGIS 10.2 (http://www.esri. com/arcgis) and ADOBE ILLUSTRATOR CS6 (http://www.adobe.com/products/illustrator.html). Inset: Natrix natrix helvetica (Linz am Rhein, Germany); photo: Wolfgang Böhme.

Figure 2 in Hybridization patterns in two contact zones of grass snakes reveal a new Central European snake species

Figure 2. Parsimony networks of mtDNA sequences. Symbol sizes reflect haplotype frequencies. Small black circles are missing node haplotypes; each line connecting two haplotypes corresponds to one mutation step, if not otherwise indicated by numbers. Haplotype colours correspond to lineages, i.e. Natrix natrix helvetica (h) in blue; eastern lineages in yellow (y) and in red (r).

FIGURES 1–5. Trichoptera larvae and linear regression. Figure 1, Ithytrichia lamellaris Eaton 1873, fifth instar larva with case. Figure 2, Hydropsyche tabacarui Botosaneanu 1960 in Tools for instar determination of European caddisfly larvae (Insecta: Trichoptera)

FIGURES 1–5. Trichoptera larvae and linear regression. Figure 1, Ithytrichia lamellaris Eaton 1873, fifth instar larva with case. Figure 2, Hydropsyche tabacarui Botosaneanu 1960, fifth instar larva, abdominal segments VI–IX (white ovals = pupal gill buds). Figure 3, Athripsodes longispinosus paleochora (Malicky 1972), fifth instar larva, head, right anterolateral (arrow = subocular ecdysial line). Figure 4, Halesus rubricollis (Pictet 1834), first instar larva, pronotum, dorsal (white numerals refer to setal positions; arrows indicate pits). Scale bars: 0.5 mm in Figs. 1 and 3, 1 mm in Fig. 2, 0.1 mm in Fig. 4. Figure 5, linear regression (with 95% confidence bands) of forewing length versus final instar head width, based on pooled data of 451 European Trichoptera species across all families, showing the regression equation, the coefficient of determination, and the probability level for the relationship.

FIGURE 11 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 11. Images of parameres of Dicyphus (Dicyphus) spp. Dicyphus (D.) constrictus (Boheman, 1852), Dicyphus (D.) cerastii Wagner, 1951, Dicyphus (D.) errans Wolff, 1804, Dicyphus (D.) epilobii Reuter, 1883, Dicyphus (D.) hyalinipennis (Burmeister, 1835), Dicyphus (D.) pallidus (Herrich-Schaeffer, 1836), and Dicyphus (D.) stachydis J. Sahlberg, 1878.

FIGURE 3 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 3. Dorsal habitus images of Dicyphus (Dicyphus) spp. Dicyphus (D.) errans Wolff, 1804 and Dicyphus (D.) epilobii Reuter, 1883.

FIGURE 2 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 2. Dorsal habitus images of Dicyphus (Brachyceroea) spp. Dicyphus (B.) albonasutus Wagner, 1951, Dicyphus (B.) geniculatus (Fieber, 1858), Dicyphus (B.) digitalidis Josifov, 1958, Dicyphus (B.) globulifer (Fallén, 1829), and Dicyphus (B.) montandoni Reuter, 1888.

FIGURE 7 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 7. Images of male abdominal apex of Dicyphus (D.) spp. in left lateral (above) and dorsal (below) views, respectively. Dicyphus (D.) cerastii Wagner, 1951, Dicyphus (D.) errans Wolff, 1804, Dicyphus (D.) constrictus (Boheman, 1852), Dicyphus (D.) hyalinipennis (Burmeister, 1835), and Dicyphus (D.) stachydis J. Sahlberg, 1878, Dicyphus (D.) pallidus (Herrich-Schaeffer, 1836).

FIGURE 1 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 1. Dorsal habitus images of Bryocoris pteridis (Fallén, 1807), Monalocoris filicis (Linnaeus, 1758), and Campyloneura virgula (Herrich-Schaeffer, 1835).

FIGURE 10 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 10. Images of parameres of Dicyphus (Brachyceroea) spp. Dicyphus (B.) albonasutus Wagner, 1951, Dicyphus (B.) geniculatus (Fieber, 1858), Dicyphus (B.) globulifer (Fallén, 1829), Dicyphus (B.) digitalidis Josifov, 1958, and Dicyphus (B.) montandoni Reuter, 1888.

FIGURE 9 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 9. Images of parameres. Bryocoris pteridis (Fallén, 1807), Monalocoris filicis (Linnaeus, 1758) Macrolophus costalis Fieber, 1858, Macrolophus epilobii Putshkov, l978, Macrolophus pygmaeus Rambur, 1839, Macrolophus rubi Woodroffe, 1957, and Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter, 1895).

FIGURE 6 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 6. Dorsal habitus images and head in lateral view of Macrolophus and Nesidiocoris spp. Macrolophus costalis Fieber, 1858, Macrolophus epilobii Putshkov, l978, Macrolophus glaucescens Fieber, 1858, Macrolophus pygmaeus Rambur, 1839, Macrolophus rubi Woodroffe, 1957, and Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter, 1895).

FIGURE 5 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 5. Dorsal habitus images of Dicyphus (Dicyphus) spp. Dicyphus (D.) constrictus (Boheman, 1852) and Dicyphus (D.) pallidus (Herrich-Schaeffer, 1836).

FIGURE 4 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 4. Dorsal habitus images of Dicyphus (Dicyphus) spp. Dicyphus (D.) cerastii Wagner, 1951, Dicyphus (D.) hyalinipennis (Burmeister, 1835), and Dicyphus (D.) stachydis J. Sahlberg, 1878.

FIGURE 8 in Bryocorinae Baerensprung, 1860 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) of European Russia and the Caucasus: synopsis and key to species

FIGURE 8. Images of genital capsule and aedeagus of Dicyphus and Nesidiocoris spp. Dicyphus (B.) albonasutus Wagner, 1951, Dicyphus (B.) geniculatus (Fieber, 1858), Dicyphus (B.) globulifer (Fallén, 1829), Dicyphus (B.) digitalidis Josifov, 1958, Dicyphus (B.) montandoni Reuter, 1888, Dicyphus (D.) epilobii Reuter, 1883, and Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter, 1895).

opencc-zeroDec 2014View details →

Data from: Signatures of natural selection between life cycle stages separated by metamorphosis in European eel

Background: Species showing complex life cycles provide excellent opportunities to study the genetic associations between life cycle stages, as selective pressures may differ before and after metamorphosis. The European eel presents a complex life cycle with two metamorphoses, a first metamorphosis from larvae into glass eels (juvenile stage) and a second metamorphosis into silver eels (adult stage). We tested the hypothesis that different genes and gene pathways will be under selection at different life stages when comparing the genetic associations between glass eels and silver eels. Results: We used two sets of markers to test for selection: first, we genotyped individuals using a panel of 80 coding-gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) developed in American eel; second, we investigated selection at the genome level using a total of 153,423 RAD-sequencing generated SNPs widely distributed across the genome. Using the RAD approach, outlier tests identified a total of 2413 (1.57 %) potentially selected SNPs. Functional annotation analysis identified signal transduction pathways as the most over-represented group of genes, including MAPK/Erk signalling, calcium signalling and GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) signalling. Many of the over-represented pathways were related to growth, while others could result from the different conditions that eels inhabit during their life cycle. Conclusions: The observation of different genes and gene pathways under selection when comparing glass eels vs. silver eels supports the adaptive decoupling hypothesis for the benefits of metamorphosis. Partitioning the life cycle into discrete morphological phases may be overall beneficial since it allows the different life stages to respond independently to their unique selection pressures. This might translate into a more effective use of food and niche resources and/or performance of phase-specific tasks (e.g. feeding in the case of glass eels, migrating and reproducing in the case of silver eels).

opencc-zeroDec 2012View details →

Data from: Sleepless in town – drivers of the temporal shift in dawn song in urban European Blackbirds

Organisms living in urban environments are exposed to different environmental conditions compared to their rural conspecifics. Especially anthropogenic noise and artificial night light are closely linked to urbanization and pose new challenges to urban species. Songbirds are particularly affected by these factors, because they rely on the spread of acoustic information and adjust their behaviour to the rhythm of night and day, e.g. time their dawn song according to changing light intensities. Our aim was to clarify the specific contributions of artificial night light and traffic noise on the timing of dawn song of urban European Blackbirds (Turdus merula). We investigated the onset of blackbird dawn song along a steep urban gradient ranging from an urban forest to the city centre of Leipzig, Germany. This gradient of anthropogenic noise and artificial night light was reflected in the timing of dawn song. In the city centre, blackbirds started their dawn song up to 5 hours earlier compared to those in semi-natural habitats. We found traffic noise to be the driving factor of the shift of dawn song into true night, although it was not completely separable from the effects of ambient night light. We additionally included meteorological conditions into the analysis and found an effect on the song onset. Cloudy and cold weather delayed the onset, but cloud cover was assumed to reflect night light emissions, thus, amplified sky luminance and increased the effect of artificial night light. Beside these temporal effects, we also found differences in the spatial autocorrelation of dawn song onset showing a much higher variability in noisy city areas than in rural parks and forests. These findings indicate that urban hazards such as ambient noise and light pollution show a manifold interference with naturally evolved cycles and have significant effects on the activity patterns of urban blackbirds.

opencc-zeroDec 2012View details →

Data from: Understanding geographic origins and history of admixture among chimpanzees in European zoos, with implications for future breeding programmes

Despite ample focus on this endangered species, conservation planning for chimpanzees residing outside Africa has proven a challenge because of the lack of ancestry information. Here, we analysed the largest number of chimpanzee samples to date, examining microsatellites in >100 chimpanzees from the range of the species in Africa, and 20% of the European zoo population. We applied the knowledge about subspecies differentiation throughout equatorial Africa to assign origin to chimpanzees in the largest conservation management programme globally. A total of 63% of the genotyped chimpanzees from the European zoos could be assigned to one of the recognized subspecies. The majority being of West African origin (40%) will help consolidate the current breeding programme for this subspecies and the identification of individuals belonging to the two other subspecies so far found in European zoos can form the basis for breeding programmes for these. Individuals of various degree of mixed ancestry made up 37% of the genotyped European zoo population and thus highlight the need for appropriate management programmes guided by genetic analysis to preserve maximum genetic diversity and reduce hybridization among subspecies.