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Figure 1 in Dispersion of nematodes (Rhabditida) in the guts of slugs and snails
Figure 1. The minimum number of nematode species documented in the ten gastropod species investigated: Arion rufus, Cepaea nemoralis, Arianta arbustorum, Arion cf. fasciatus, Arion ater, Helix pomatia, Aegopinella sp., Limax maximus, Deroceras sp., and Discus ruderatus.
Figure 3 in Dispersal of earthworms from the Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) into Western Siberia
Figure 3. The PCA factorial plane the corresponding correlation circle of earthworm distribution relative to soil layers and habitats. The vector show direction of correlation and its length indicate the strength of the variable. W, soil humidity; G, electric conductivity; T, temperature; ρ, density. OmEna, Omsk populations of E. nana; KazEna, Kazakhstan populations of E. nana; OmEve, Omsk populations of E. ventripapillata; KazEve, Kazakhstan populations of E. ventripapillata; OmEtr, Omsk populations of E. tracta, KazEtr, Kazakhstan populations of E. tracta.
Riverine sediment geochemistry and its dispersal pattern on the western Sunda Shelf
<p>Table 1: Sample locations, trace element concentrations (ppm), and Sr-Nd isotopes of the sediments analyzed in this study.</p> <p>Table 2: Published Sr-Nd isotopic ratios on Sunda Shelf and South China Sea (SCS).</p> <p>Fig. 1 Normalized REE diagram of Sunda Shelf sediments with multiple references. </p> <p>Fig. 2 Corrected Eu values versus Ba/Sm ratios. The δEu ratios in this study were corrected for Ba16O+ interferences by the formula given by Dulski (1994). After the correction, the corrected ratios show only a weak correlation with Ba/Sm ratios.</p> <p>Fig. 3 Correlation between δEu and Th concentrations of Pahang and Kelantan river sediments.</p> <p>Fig. 4 Correlation between Rb/Sr ratio and 87Sr/86Sr ratios in sediment samples.</p> <p>Fig. 5 Correlation between (A) 87Sr/86Sr ratios and grain sizes (Mz), and (B) ɛNd and grain sizes (Mz) in Pahang, Kelantan, Rajang and Mekong river sediments</p>
Data from: Socially informed dispersal in a territorial cooperative breeder
1. Dispersal is a key process governing the dynamics of socially and spatially structured populations, and involves three distinct stages: emigration, transience, and settlement. At each stage, individuals have to make movement decisions, which are influenced by social, environmental, and individual factors. Yet, a comprehensive understanding of the drivers that influence such decisions is still lacking, particularly for the transient stage during which free-living individuals are inherently difficult to follow. 2. Social circumstances such as the likelihood of encountering conspecifics can be expected to strongly affects decision making during dispersal, particularly in territorial species where encounters with resident conspecifics are antagonistic. Here we analyzed the movement trajectories of 47 dispersing coalitions of Kalahari meerkats (Suricata suricatta) through a landscape occupied by constantly monitored resident groups, while simultaneously taking into account environmental and individual characteristics. 3. We used GPS locations collected on resident groups to create a geo-referenced social landscape representing the likelihood of encountering resident groups. We used a step-selection function to infer the effect of social, environmental and individual covariates on habitat selection during dispersal. Lastly, we created a temporal mismatch between the social landscape and the dispersal event of interest to identify the temporal scale at which dispersers perceive the social landscape. 4. Including information about the social landscape considerably improved our representation of the dispersal trajectory, compared to analyses that only accounted for environmental variables. The latter were only marginally selected or avoided by dispersers. Before leaving their natal territory, dispersers selected areas frequently used by their natal group. In contrast, after leaving their natal territory, they selectively used areas where they were less likely to encounter unrelated groups. This pattern was particularly marked in larger dispersing coalitions and when unrelated males were part of the dispersing coalition. 5. Our results suggest that, in socially and spatially structured species, dispersers gather and process social information during dispersal, and that reducing risk of aggression from unrelated resident groups outweighs benefits derived from conspecific attraction. Finally, our work underlines the intimate link between the social structure of a population and dispersal, which affect each other reciprocally.
Data from: Calcisponges have a ParaHox gene and dynamic expression of dispersed NK homeobox genes
Sponges are simple animals with few cell types, but their genomes paradoxically contain a wide variety of developmental transcription factors1, 2, 3, 4, including homeobox genes belonging to the Antennapedia (ANTP) class5, 6, which in bilaterians encompass Hox, ParaHox and NK genes. In the genome of the demosponge Amphimedon queenslandica, no Hox or ParaHox genes are present, but NK genes are linked in a tight cluster similar to the NK clusters of bilaterians5. It has been proposed that Hox and ParaHox genes originated from NK cluster genes after divergence of sponges from the lineage leading to cnidarians and bilaterians5, 7. On the other hand, synteny analysis lends support to the notion that the absence of Hox and ParaHox genes in Amphimedon is a result of secondary loss (the ghost locus hypothesis)8. Here we analysed complete suites of ANTP-class homeoboxes in two calcareous sponges, Sycon ciliatum and Leucosolenia complicata. Our phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that these calcisponges possess orthologues of bilaterian NK genes (Hex, Hmx and Msx), a varying number of additional NK genes and one ParaHox gene, Cdx. Despite the generation of scaffolds spanning multiple genes, we find no evidence of clustering of Sycon NK genes. All Sycon ANTP-class genes are developmentally expressed, with patterns suggesting their involvement in cell type specification in embryos and adults, metamorphosis and body plan patterning. These results demonstrate that ParaHox genes predate the origin of sponges, thus confirming the ghost locus hypothesis8, and highlight the need to analyse the genomes of multiple sponge lineages to obtain a complete picture of the ancestral composition of the first animal genome.
Data from: Local extinctions of obligate frugivores and patch size reduction disrupt the structure of seed dispersal networks
A central problem in ecology is to understand how human impacts affect plant-animal interactions that lead to effective seed dispersal services for plant communities. Seed dispersal services are the outcome of plant-frugivore interactions that often form local networks of interacting species. Recent work has shown that some frugivorous bird species are more critical to network organization than others. Here, we explore how patch size and the potential local extinctions of obligate frugivorous birds affect the reorganization of seed dispersal networks. We examined the structure of 20 empirical seed dispersal networks documented across tropical avian assemblages occupying widely variable habitat patch sizes, a surrogate of the amount of remaining habitat. Networks within small forest patches consistently supported both lower plant and bird species richness. Forest patch size was positively associated with nestedness, indicating that reductions in patch size disrupted the nested organization of seed dispersal networks. Obligate frugivores, especially large-bodied species, were almost entirely absent from small forest patches. Analysis at the species level showed that obligate frugivores formed the core of interacting species, connecting species within a given seed dispersal network. Our combined results revealed that patch size reduction erodes frugivorous bird diversity, thereby affecting the integrity of seed dispersal networks. We highlight the importance of conserving large forest patches to maintain tropical forest functionality.
Data from: Self-recruitment in a Caribbean reef fish: a method for approximating dispersal kernels accounting for seascape
Characterizing patterns of larval dispersal is essential to understanding the ecological and evolutionary dynamics of marine metapopulations. Recent research has measured local dispersal within populations, but the development of marine dispersal kernels from empirical data remains a challenge. We propose a framework to move beyond point estimates of dispersal towards the approximation of a simple dispersal kernel, based on the hypothesis that the structure of the seascape is a primary predictor of realized dispersal patterns. Using the coral reef fish Elacatinus lori as a study organism, we use genetic parentage analysis to estimate self-recruitment at a small spatial scale (<1 km). Next, we determine which simple kernel explains the observed self-recruitment, given the influx of larvae from reef habitat patches in the seascape at a large spatial scale (up to 35 km). Finally, we complete parentage analyses at six additional sites to test for export from the focal site and compare these observed dispersal data within the metapopulation to the predicted dispersal kernel. We find 4.6% self-recruitment (CI95%: ±3.0%) in the focal population, which is explained by the exponential kernel y = 0.915x (CI95%: y = 0.865x, y = 0.965x), given the seascape. Additional parentage analyses showed low levels of export to nearby sites, and the best-fit line through the observed dispersal proportions also revealed a declining function y = 0.77x. This study lends direct support to the hypothesis that the probability of larval dispersal declines rapidly with distance in Atlantic gobies in continuously distributed habitat, just as it does in the Indo-Pacific damselfishes in patchily distributed habitat.
Data from: Diet and provisioning rate differ predictably between dispersing and philopatric pied flycatchers
Dispersal is an essential process for most animal populations to persist in changing environments. Dispersers are often a non-random sample of the population, and differ consistently from non-dispersers in a suite of correlated phenotypic traits ('dispersal syndromes'). This phenotypic integration is thought to be adaptive. Here, we investigate whether dispersal tendency of individual pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) covaries with a set of repeatable behaviors that should confer advantages for surviving and reproducing in novel environments. We specifically focus on the link between dispersal, foraging behavior and aggressiveness because selection on foraging tactics or social behaviors likely differs between individuals staying in familiar or dispersing to novel environments. Using repeated measures of nestling provisioning data of pied flycatcher parents in one year, we tested if immigrants and philopatric individuals (local recruits and experienced breeders) differed in diet specialization, provisioning rates, levels of aggression and reproductive success. Results show that individuals differed consistently in their foraging behavior, with immigrants having a more generalist diet and higher feeding rates than philopatric birds, but not in aggressiveness. More generalist males fledged more young. Our findings suggest that prior local knowledge facilitates diet specialization, and that more generalist diets could be adaptive for immigrants breeding in unknown environments. Aggressiveness was not part of the dispersal syndrome in our population, perhaps because high aggression levels are too costly to maintain in high density populations. Understanding the proximate causes and ultimate consequences of variation in dispersal syndromes requires now experimental manipulations of individual dispersal decisions.
Data from: Global biogeography of scaly tree ferns (Cyatheaceae): evidence for Gondwanan vicariance and limited transoceanic dispersal
Aim: Scaly tree ferns, Cyatheaceae, are a well-supported group of mostly tree-forming ferns found throughout the tropics, the subtropics and the south-temperate zone. Fossil evidence shows that the lineage originated in the Late Jurassic period. We reconstructed large-scale historical biogeographical patterns of Cyatheaceae and tested the hypothesis that some of the observed distribution patterns are in fact compatible, in time and space, with a vicariance scenario related to the break-up of Gondwana. Location: Tropics, subtropics and south-temperate areas of the world. Methods: The historical biogeography of Cyatheaceae was analysed in a maximum likelihood framework using Lagrange. The 78 ingroup taxa are representative of the geographical distribution of the entire family. The phylogenies that served as a basis for the analyses were obtained by Bayesian inference analyses of mainly previously published DNA sequence data using MrBayes. Lineage divergence dates were estimated in a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo framework using beast. Results: Cyatheaceae originated in the Late Jurassic in either South America or Australasia. Following a range expansion, the ancestral distribution of the marginate-scaled clade included both these areas, whereas Sphaeropteris is reconstructed as having its origin only in Australasia. Within the marginate-scaled clade, reconstructions of early divergences are hampered by the unresolved relationships among the Alsophila, Cyathea and Gymnosphaera lineages. Nevertheless, it is clear that the occurrence of the Cyathea and Sphaeropteris lineages in South America may be related to vicariance, whereas transoceanic dispersal needs to be inferred for the range shifts seen in Alsophila and Gymnosphaera. Main conclusions: The evolutionary history of Cyatheaceae involves both Gondwanan vicariance scenarios as well as long-distance dispersal events. The number of transoceanic dispersals reconstructed for the family is rather few when compared with other fern lineages. We suggest that a causal relationship between reproductive mode (outcrossing) and dispersal limitations is the most plausible explanation for the pattern observed.
Data from: To what extent are bryophytes efficient dispersers?
• Bryophytes are typically seen as extremely efficient dispersers. Experimental evidence suggests that efficient short- and long-distance dispersal coupled with random colonization leads to an inverse isolation effect. Under the latter, a higher genetic diversity of colonizing propagules is expected with increasing isolation, counteracting differentiation beyond the range of short-distance dispersal. • This expectation is tested from a review of evidence on spatial genetic structure and analyses of isolation-by-distance (IBD) at different scales. • A decay of the IBD signal, characterized by non-significant slopes between kinship coefficients and distance, was observed in 2/3 of the investigated datasets beyond 100m. A second slope shift was observed at distances larger than 100km, with a proportion of significant slopes in >50% of the datasets. • The decay of the IBD signal beyond 100m, which reflects the rapid decrease of spore densities with increasing distance from the source, is consistent with the inverse isolation hypothesis. Persistence of a significant IBD signal at medium ranges in 1/3 of the cases suggests, however, that the inverse isolation effect is not a rule in bryophyte spore dispersal. Furthermore, the higher proportion of significant isolation-by-distance patterns observed at scales over 100km likely marks the limits of regional dispersal, beyond which an increasingly smaller proportion of spores travel. • We discuss the differences between experimental and genetic estimates of spore dispersal and conclude that geographic distance remains a significant proxy of spore colonization rates, with major consequences for our understanding of actual migration capacities in bryophytes, and hence, our capacity to model range shifts in a changing world.
Data from: Environmental conditions affect spatial genetic structures and dispersal patterns in a solitary rodent
The study of the spatial distribution of relatives in a population under contrasted environmental conditions provides critical insights into the flexibility of dispersal behaviour and the role of environmental conditions in shaping population relatedness and social structure. Yet few studies have evaluated the effects of fluctuating environmental conditions on relatedness structure of solitary species in the wild. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of interannual variations in environmental conditions on the spatial distribution of relatives [spatial genetic structure (SGS)] and dispersal patterns of a wild population of eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus), a solitary rodent of North America. Eastern chipmunks depend on the seed of masting trees for reproduction and survival. Here, we combined the analysis of the SGS of adults with direct estimates of juvenile dispersal distance during six contrasted years with different dispersal seasons, population sizes and seed production. We found that environmental conditions influences the dispersal distances of juveniles and that male juveniles dispersed farther than females. The extent of the SGS of adult females varied between years and matched the variation in environmental conditions. In contrast, the SGS of males did not vary between years. We also found a difference in SGS between males and females that was consistent with male-biased dispersal. This study suggests that both the dispersal behaviour and the relatedness structure in a population of a solitary species can be relatively labile and change according to environmental conditions.
Data from: Dispersal of fungi spores by non-specialized flower-visiting birds
Birds are important biotic dispersers of a wide range of propagules. Fungi spores are mainly dispersed by wind. Nevertheless there are several animals known to disperse fungi spores, which might be particularly important if spores are delivered to particularly favourable sites i.e. directed dispersal. This may be especially important for fungi that require specific microsites such as flowers. We sampled birds for the presence of fungi spores and pollen grains during one year at two forest sites in central Portugal. We found that out of the 894 birds sampled, 131 individuals from 11 species carried spores from at least 6 morphological types, mainly during winter. The great majority of birds found to carry fungi spores was also found to carry pollen grains, suggesting that they were feeding on flowers which are the main origin of the spores. This co-dispersion of pollen and fungi spores suggest that the latter are not randomly dispersed on the environment, but are likely to have an increased probability of being deposited on flowers propitious to fungi development. Our results suggest that directed dispersal of fungi by flower-visiting birds might by a common and under-appreciated phenomenon with potentially important ecological, biogeographic and even economic outcomes.
Data from: Neglected seed dispersers: endozoochory by Javan lutungs (Trachypithecus auratus) in Indonesia
Leaf monkeys are known to be leaf eaters, and thus, their potential role as seed dispersers has been neglected. However, they do also feed on fruits. To examine the role of leaf monkeys as endozoochorous seed dispersers, we studied the Javan lutung (Trachypithecus auratus) in Indonesia. We compared multiple aspects of seed dispersal processes (amount and diversity of seeds ingested, dispersal distance, and germination rate) of lutungs with that of the sympatric long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Over the study period, 54 percent of the lutung feces contained intact seeds, which was equivalent to the macaque feces contained seeds (62%). Seeds of at least six plant species were detected in the lutung feces, which was less than those found in the macaque feces (>19 plant species). The main species of seeds defecated by both lutungs and macaques was Ficus spp. (seed size: 0.7 mm). Seed shadow, estimated from travel distance (range: 1–299 m) and gut passage rate (24–96 h), had a unimodal-distribution with a peak at 51–100 m, and was shorter than that reported in published accounts of macaques and other similar and smaller sized frugivores. Finally, germination rates of Ficus spp. seeds ingested by both lutungs and macaques were lower than that of the control seeds. These results imply that the dispersal effectiveness of lutungs would be lower than that of the sympatric primate frugivores. However, at a population level, lutungs could play a significant role as seed dispersers for the small-seeded species, and therefore, more research into their frugivorous habits is warranted.
Parasitism and host dispersal plasticity in an aquatic model system
<p>Dispersal is a central determinant of spatial dynamics in communities and ecosystems, and various ecological factors can shape the evolution of constitutive and plastic dispersal behaviours. One important driver of dispersal plasticity is the biotic environment. Parasites, for example, influence the internal condition of infected hosts and define external patch quality. Thus state-dependent dispersal may be determined by infection status and context-dependent dispersal by the abundance of infected hosts in the population. A prerequisite for such dispersal plasticity to evolve is a genetic basis on which natural selection can act. Using interconnected microcosms, we investigated dispersal in experimental populations of the freshwater protist <i>Paramecium caudatum</i> in response to the bacterial parasite <i>Holospora undulata</i>. For a collection of 20 natural host strains, we found substantial variation in constitutive dispersal, and to a lesser degree in dispersal plasticity. First, infection tended to increase or decrease dispersal relative to uninfected controls, depending on strain identity, potentially indicative of state-dependent dispersal plasticity. Infection additionally decreased host swimming speed compared to the uninfected counterparts. Second, for certain strains, there was a weak negative association between dispersal and infection prevalence, such that uninfected hosts tended to disperse less when infection was more frequent in the population, indicating context-dependent dispersal plasticity. Future experiments may test whether the observed differences in dispersal plasticity are sufficiently strong to react to natural selection. The evolution of dispersal plasticity as a strategy to mitigate parasite effects spatially may have important implications for epidemiological dynamics.</p>
Data from: Using relatedness networks to infer contemporary dispersal: application to the endangered mammal Galemys pyrenaicus
Information about the degree of contemporary dispersal is important when trying to understand how populations interchange individuals and identify the specific barriers that prevent these movements. In the case of endangered species, this can represent crucial information when designing appropriate strategies that favor natural genetic exchange between populations. Here we analyze the parentage relationships between individuals from different localities and use these data to infer dispersal occurred in recent generations. We applied this approach to the Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus), a semiaquatic and endangered species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. We studied this species in four primary rivers in the Iberian Range, where two ancient mitochondrial lineages are separated by a strict contact zone but whose populations are more homogeneous at the genome level, suggesting the existence of complex dispersal patterns. Using next generation sequencing, we obtained 912 SNPs from each sample and estimated relatedness values between them. While relatedness networks were very dense within each river, we found surprisingly few relationships between individuals from different rivers despite their close proximity in some cases, indicating that dispersal between rivers is extremely low compared to dispersal within a single river. In agreement with this, the degree of inbreeding was exceedingly high in most individuals. These data show that relatedness information can be crucial to understand the contemporary dispersal patterns and conservation status of specific populations of endangered species.
Data from: Natal dispersal of whooping cranes in the reintroduced eastern migratory population
<p>Natal dispersal is a key demographic process for evaluating population rate of change, especially for long-lived, highly mobile species. This process is largely unknown for reintroduced populations of endangered avian species. We evaluated natal dispersal distances (NDD) for male and female Whooping Cranes (<i>Grus americana</i>) introduced into two locations in central Wisconsin (Necedah National Wildlife Refuge, or NNWR, and the Eastern Rectangle, or ER) using a series of demographic, spatial, and life history related covariates. Data were analyzed using Gamma Regression models with a log-link function and compared using Akaike Information Criterion corrected for small sample sizes (AICc). Whooping Cranes released in the ER dispersed 261% further than those released into NNWR, dispersal distance increased 4% for each additional nesting pair, decreased about 24% for males as compared to females, increased for 21% for inexperienced pairs, and decreased 3% for each additional year of age. Natal philopatry, habitat availability, and competition for breeding territories may be influencing observed patterns of NDD. Whooping Cranes released in the ER may exhibit longer NDD due to fragmented habitat or conspecific attraction to established breeding pairs at NNWR. Additionally, sex-biased dispersal may be increasing in this population as there are more individuals from different natal sites forming breeding pairs. As the population grows and continues to disperse, the drivers of NDD patterns may evolve.</p>
Dataset used in "Estimating Dispersion Coefficient in Flow Through Heterogeneous Porous Media by a Deep Convolutional Neural Network" by Kamrava et al. in Geophysical Research Letters.
<p>Morphology of Heterogeneous Porous Media</p>
Crustal and upper mantle structure beneath SE China from joint analysis of receiver functions and Rayleigh-wave dispersion
<p>This file contains our new 3-D shear-wave velocity model for SE China.</p>
Figure 4 in Introduction, distribution and habitats of the invasive spider Badumna longinqua (L. Koch, 1867) (Araneae: Desidae) in Uruguay, with notes on its world dispersion
Figure 4. Frequency of individuals of Badumna longinqua in sites where species occurred.
Figure 2 in Historical perspective, new contributions and an enlightening dispersal mechanism for the endogean genus Typhlocharis Dieck 1869 (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Trechinae)
Figure 2. Habitus of Typhlocharis josabelae sp. nov. Scale bar: 0.3 mm.
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