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Figure 4 from: Schindler M, Hofmann MM, Wittmann D, Renner SS (2018) Courtship behaviour in the genus Nomada – antennal grabbing and possible transfer of male secretions. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 65: 47-59. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.65.24947
Figure 4 Semi-thin sections of antennomere 9 of Nomadalathburiana ♂ [a=longitudinal, b=cross. Ty=Thyloid, C1=compact epidermal cells, C2= gland cells, type III (Noirot & Quennedey 1991). Scale unit: 0.05 mm (a1, b1, b2), 0.02 mm (a2). Topography: l=lateral, m=medial, v=ventral, d=dorsal] and of antennomere 7 of Nomadafucata ♂ [c=cross. Ty=Tyloid, C1= compact epidermal cells, C2=gland cells, type III, P=porous cuticle (Noirot & Quennedey 1991). Scale unit: 0.05 mm (c1, c2) Topography: l=lateral, m=medial, v=ventral, d=dorsal].
Figure 3 from: Schindler M, Hofmann MM, Wittmann D, Renner SS (2018) Courtship behaviour in the genus Nomada – antennal grabbing and possible transfer of male secretions. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 65: 47-59. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.65.24947
Figure 3 Modifications on the antennae of Nomadafucata ♂ (a) (left antenna, dorsal), N.flavoguttata ♂ (b) (right antenna, ventral) and N.lathburiana ♂ (c) (left antenna, lateral). SEM micrographs. a1 weak elevation on flagellum 6 laterally. Scale unit: 0.1 mm b1 weak elevations on flagellum 4 ventrally. Scale unit: 0.1 mm c1 nodule on flagellum 9. Scale unit: 0.1 mm a2 pores and secretions on the elevation. Scale unit: 0.01 mm b2 pores and setae on the elevations. Scale unit: 0.01 mm c2 nodule covered with secretions. Scale unit: 0.02 mm.
Figure 2 from: Schindler M, Hofmann MM, Wittmann D, Renner SS (2018) Courtship behaviour in the genus Nomada – antennal grabbing and possible transfer of male secretions. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 65: 47-59. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.65.24947
Figure 2 Mating of Nomadafucata (singular images of a video sequence). a ♂ mounts the ♀ and fixes its wings with its mid and hind legs. ♂ lifts the abdomen of the ♀ with its hind legs and tries to insert its genitalia in the female´s genital opening b ♂ entangles the female´s left antenna with its left flagellum c ♂ pulls its left flagellum from medial to apical along the female antenna d ♂ repeatedly entangles the female´s antennae with its left and right flagellum and pulls it off medially to apically. ♂ tries to insert its genitalia.
Figure 1 from: Schindler M, Hofmann MM, Wittmann D, Renner SS (2018) Courtship behaviour in the genus Nomada – antennal grabbing and possible transfer of male secretions. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 65: 47-59. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.65.24947
Figure 1 Mating of Nomadalathburiana (a, b) in the lab and of N.flavoguttata on Taraxacumofficinale s.l.. (c, d). a ♂ mounts the ♀ and fixes its wings with its mid and hind legs and tries to entangle the female´s antennae spirally with its flagella. ♂ lifts the abdomen of the ♀ with its hind legs and tries to insert its genitalia in the female´s genital opening b ♂ repeatedly spirally entangles the female´s antennae with its left and right flagellum and pulls it off medially to apically. ♂ tries to insert its genitalia repeatedly c ♂♂ patrolling at a blossom of T.officinaled Insertion phase of copulation. Antennation of ♂ as described in (b).
Figs. 8-14 in Courtship And Male-Male Agonistic Behaviour Of Cosmophasis Umbratica Simon, An Ornate Jumping Spider (Araneae: Salticidae) From Singapore
Figs. 8-14. (8) Male C. umbratica (facing right). Position its palps in front of its chelicerae during normal locomotion; (Insert) front view of C. umbratica using palps to cover its chelicerae; (9) Male C. umbratica (facing right). Raising the body with abdomen parallel to substratum; (10) Male C. umbratica facing right with body lowered; (11) Male C. umbratica (facing left) creeping towards a female facing right (partially hidden) with extended palps and extended legs that are almost parallel to substrate; (12) Male C. umbratica (front view) posturing with flexed up abdomen and extended palps (Position 2); (13) Male C. umbratica hunching and bending its abdomen to its left; (14) A side view of the agonistic display of male C. umbratica (facing left) hunching, raising and bending his abdomen to his right.
Table 4 in Courtship and Mating Behavior of the Rare, Rock-Crevice Dwelling Salamander Plethodon petraeus with a Review for Eastern North American Woodland Salamanders (Amphibia: Plethodontidae)
<p><b>Table 4. Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficients between the duration and frequency of some behaviors during the preliminary (pre-TSW) phase of courtship in the salamander <i>Plethodon petraeuS</i>. Data are from 20 individually unique pairs that engaged in ten incomplete courtships, which did not proceed to a tail-straddling walk (TSW), and ten complete courtships with TSW and spermatophore deposition. Duration <i>¼</i> minutes per pre-TSW hour. Frequency <i>¼</i> occurrences per pre-TSW hour. Apart <i>¼</i> periods when salamanders were more than about 2.5 cm apart after their initial encounter. Close <i>¼</i> periods when salamanders were within about 2.5 cm of each other but not in sustained contact via the mental gland. Dance/shuffle <i>¼</i> foot dance and foot shuffle. MG <i>¼</i> mental gland. See text for description of behaviors. C Coefficient for complete courtships, I coefficient for incomplete courtships, A coefficient for all courtships when both incomplete and complete courtships had very similar correlations. * <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.02, ** <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.01, *** <i>P</i></b>, 0.001.</p><table><tbody><tr><th><b>Duration of period or behavior</b></th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th></th><td><b>Apart</b></td><td><b>Close</b></td><td><b>MG</b></td><td><b>Discontinuous,</b> <b>female-first TSW</b></td><td><b>Continuous,</b> <b>female-first TSW</b></td></tr><tr><th></th><td><b>(</b>. <b>2.5 cm)</b></td><td><b>(2.5 cm)</b></td><td><b>sliding</b></td></tr><tr><th>Male frequency</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Dance/shuffle</th><td></td><td>I 0.922***</td><td>A 0.528*</td><td></td><td>I 0.734*</td></tr><tr><th>MG popping</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>I 0.748*</td></tr><tr><th>MG swipe</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>C 0.704*</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Mouth grasp</th><td>I 0.856**</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Snout under</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>A 0.595**</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Female frequency</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Tail flex</th><td>I 0.806**</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Undulate tail</th><td></td><td></td><td>A 0.751***</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
Table 3 in Courtship and Mating Behavior of the Rare, Rock-Crevice Dwelling Salamander Plethodon petraeus with a Review for Eastern North American Woodland Salamanders (Amphibia: Plethodontidae)
<p><b>Table 3. Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficients between the frequency of some male and female behaviors (i.e., occurrences per hour for each pair) during the preliminary (pre-TSW) phase of courtship in the salamander <i>Plethodon petraeuS</i>. Data are from 20 individually unique pairs that engaged in ten incomplete courtships, which did not proceed to a tail-straddling walk (TSW), and ten complete courtships with TSW and spermatophore deposition. Dance/shuffle <i>¼</i> foot dance and foot shuffle. MG <i>¼</i> mental gland. See text for description of behaviors. C Coefficient for complete courtships, I coefficient for incomplete courtships, A coefficient for all courtships when both incomplete and complete courtships had very similar correlations. * <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.025, ** <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.015, *** <i>P</i></b>, 0.001.</p><table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><b>Male behavior</b></th><th><b>Female behavior</b></th></tr><tr><th></th><th><b>Mouth</b> <b>grasp</b></th><th><b>Position</b> <b>for TSW</b></th><th><b>Undulate</b> <b>tail</b></th><th><b>Turn</b> <b>back</b></th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Male behavior</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Dance/shuffle</th><td></td><td>A 0.773***</td><td>A 0.660**</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Snout under</th><td></td><td>I 0.824**</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>MG popping</th><td></td><td></td><td>A 0.548**</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Female behavior</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Tail flex</th><td>I 0.801**</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Undulate tail</th><td></td><td>A 0.507*</td><td></td><td>C 0.762**</td></tr><tr><th>Chin over</th><td></td><td>A 0.566**</td><td>C 0.793**</td><td>A 0.912***</td></tr></tbody></table>
Table 2 in Courtship and Mating Behavior of the Rare, Rock-Crevice Dwelling Salamander Plethodon petraeus with a Review for Eastern North American Woodland Salamanders (Amphibia: Plethodontidae)
<p><b>Table 2. Duration (min) of behaviors and phases during courtship and mating in the salamander <i>Plethodon petraeuS</i>. Data are from ten individually unique pairs that engaged in complete courtship with tail-straddling walk (TSW) and spermatophore deposition. For Pair 3 courtship, there were two spermatophore depositions. (A) Apart <i>¼</i> periods when salamanders were more than about 2.5 cm apart after their initial encounter. (B) Close <i>¼</i> periods when salamanders were within about 2.5 cm of each other but not in sustained contact via the mental gland (e.g., includes periods with male foot dance/shuffle, undulate tail, mental-gland tap/swipe, nudge, and snout under). (C) Sliding <i>¼</i> mental-gland sliding. (D) ffTSWd <i>¼</i> discontinuous, female-first TSW. (E) ffTSWc <i>¼</i> continuous, female-first TSW. (F) upTSW <i>¼</i> unsuccessful position for TSW. (G) spTSW <i>¼</i> successful position for TSW. (H) TSW <i>¼</i> tail-straddling walk. (I) SD <i>¼</i> spermatophore deposition. (J) LOS <i>¼</i> lead female over spermatophore. (K) POC <i>¼</i> position on sperm cap. *Successful retrieval of sperm cap. Total B to G <i>¼</i> duration of pre-TSW phase of courtship. Total B to K <i>¼</i> total duration of pre-TSW phase, TSW, and sperm transfer. Total A to K <i>¼</i> total duration of courtship from the initial encounter between salamanders until the final attempted retrieval of sperm cap. Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficients (which do not include durations for behaviors from the second courtship sequence for pair 3): 1 r <i>¼</i> 0.952, <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.0001 for Apart and TSW; 2 r <i>¼</i> 0.770, <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.01 for Sliding and ffTSWd; 3 r <i>¼</i> 0.964, <i>P</i></b>, <b>0.00001 for Sliding and upTSW; 4 r <i>¼</i> 0.765, <i>P</i></b>, 0.01 for ffTSWd and upTSW.</p><table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><b>Pre-TSW phase</b></th><th><b>TSW & sperm-transfer phase</b></th></tr><tr><th></th><th><b>(A)</b> <b>1</b></th><th><b>(B)</b></th><th><b>(C)</b> <b>2,3</b></th><th><b>(D)</b> <b>2,4</b></th><th><b>(E)</b></th><th><b>(F)</b> <b>3,4</b></th><th><b>(G)</b></th><th><b>(H)</b> <b>1</b></th><th><b>(I)</b></th><th><b>(J)</b></th><th><b>(K)</b></th><th><b>Total</b></th><th><b>Total</b></th><th><b>Total</b></th></tr><tr><th><b>Pair</b></th><th><b>Apart</b></th><th><b>Close</b></th><th><b>Sliding</b></th><th><b>ffTSWd</b></th><th><b>ffTSWc</b></th><th><b>upTSW</b></th><th><b>spTSW</b></th><th><b>TSW</b></th><th><b>SD</b></th><th><b>LOS</b></th><th><b>POC</b></th><th><b>B to G</b></th><th><b>B to K</b></th><th><b>A to K</b></th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>1</th><td>29</td><td>152</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>31</td><td>7</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.5*</td><td>166</td><td>204.9</td><td>233.9</td></tr><tr><th>2</th><td>13</td><td>122</td><td>3</td><td>20</td><td>0</td><td>2</td><td>6</td><td>22</td><td>8</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.4*</td><td>153</td><td>183.7</td><td>196.7</td></tr><tr><th>3</th><td>9</td><td>69</td><td>19</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>73</td><td>2</td><td>23</td><td>7</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.8</td><td>166</td><td>197.2</td><td></td></tr><tr><th></th><td>2</td><td>66</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>17</td><td>5</td><td>26</td><td>8</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.5*</td><td>91</td><td>126.1</td><td>334.3</td></tr><tr><th>4</th><td>71</td><td>24</td><td>9</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>42</td><td>7</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.5*</td><td>39</td><td>88.8</td><td>159.8</td></tr><tr><th>5</th><td>172</td><td>45</td><td>35</td><td>26</td><td>170</td><td>35</td><td>12</td><td>223</td><td>9</td><td>0.3</td><td></td><td>323</td><td>555.3</td><td>727.3</td></tr><tr><th>6</th><td>12</td><td>69</td><td>33</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>17</td><td>15</td><td>20</td><td>8</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.8</td><td>140</td><td>169.2</td><td>181.2</td></tr><tr><th>7</th><td>8</td><td>36</td><td>33</td><td>7</td><td>0</td><td>42</td><td>1</td><td>26</td><td>8</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.7</td><td>119</td><td>154</td><td>162</td></tr><tr><th>8</th><td>29</td><td>119</td><td>68</td><td>15</td><td>0</td><td>73</td><td>10</td><td>43</td><td>7</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.6</td><td>285</td><td>336.1</td><td>365.1</td></tr><tr><th>9</th><td>8</td><td>323</td><td>48</td><td>32</td><td>0</td><td>88</td><td>12</td><td>32</td><td>6</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.9*</td><td>503</td><td>542.3</td><td>550.3</td></tr><tr><th>10</th><td>33</td><td>184</td><td>210</td><td>46</td><td>0</td><td>270</td><td>5</td><td>30</td><td>8</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.6*</td><td>715</td><td>754</td><td>787</td></tr><tr><th>Total</th><td>386</td><td>1209</td><td>466</td><td>158</td><td>170</td><td>623</td><td>74</td><td>518</td><td>83</td><td>4.3</td><td>6.3</td><td>2700</td><td>3311.6</td><td>3697.6</td></tr><tr><th>Mean</th><td>35.1</td><td>109.9</td><td>42.4</td><td>14.4</td><td>15.5</td><td>56.6</td><td>6.7</td><td>47.1</td><td>7.5</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.6</td><td>245.5</td><td>301.1</td><td>369.8</td></tr><tr><th>SD</th><td>49.4</td><td>86.7</td><td>59.3</td><td>15.1</td><td>51.3</td><td>77.2</td><td>4.7</td><td>58.8</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.2</td><td>202.3</td><td>218.6</td><td>237.3</td></tr><tr><th>% Total</th></tr><tr><th>B to G</th><td></td><td>44.8</td><td>17.3</td><td>5.9</td><td>6.3</td><td>23.1</td><td>2.7</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>% Total</th></tr><tr><th>B to K</th><td></td><td>36.5</td><td>14.1</td><td>4.8</td><td>5.1</td><td>18.8</td><td>2.2</td><td>15.6</td><td>2.5</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>% Total</th></tr><tr><th>A to K</th><td>10.4</td><td>32.7</td><td>12.6</td><td>4.3</td><td>4.6</td><td>16.8</td><td>2.0</td><td>14.0</td><td>2.2</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
Data from: Male courtship behaviors and female choice reduced during experimental starvation stress
Mating behaviors may exhibit trade-offs with survival because the energy allocated and time devoted to survival may reduce those available for mating behaviors that are important for reproduction. Long-term selection experiments for survival in stressful conditions are valuable for understanding how survival traits may trade-off with other traits, such as reproduction. We investigated how courtship behaviors and female choice may vary under stressful conditions in Drosophila melanogaster by mating females and males from starvation–selected lines with unselected-control lines. Males from starvation-selected lines had reduced courtship behaviors with fewer wing bouts per minute and shorter duration of wing bouts compared to control males, regardless of female pairing. These results are consistent with increased survival in starvation conditions showing trade-offs in males. Female mate selectivity also showed significant evolutionary changes with unselected-control females exhibiting differential courtship durations: shorter courtship durations when paired with males from unselected-control lines and longer courtship durations with males from starvation-selected lines. In contrast, starvation-selected females showed no significant differences in courtship duration between unselected-control and starvation-selected males despite the reduction in starvation–selected male courtship behaviors. We discuss how these results may indicate that starvation selection altered the interaction between females and males for mating ability and preferences in a complex manner consistent with life-history trade-off models.
Fig. 5 in Courtship and male-male interaction behaviour of Orsima ichneumon (Simon, 1901), an ant-mimicking jumper spider (Arachnida: Salticidae)
Fig. 5. Chelicerae positions. (a) A female showing chelicerae in position 1; (b) Female (foreground) O. ichneumon rejecting male's advances (background) by rapidly raising legs I into elevated legs (position 3) when male creeps with extended legs I and opened chelicerae (position 1) to approach female; (c) Male O. ichneumon displaying to another male. Legs I elevated in position 1 and waving in up and down motion, abdomen bent to the right of the sagittal plane with chelicerae slightly open (position 2) and palps held in position 2; (d) Two male O. ichneumon lunging with elevated legs I (position 2) and about to embrace. (Top male) Chelicerae are open to 90° and fangs pointing downward (position 2). Palps are held in position 2 before transitioning to position 3 during embrace
Data from: Courtship song preferences in female zebra finches are shaped by developmental auditory experience
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Data from: Signal design and courtship presentation coincide for highly biased delivery of an iridescent butterfly mating signal
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Male courtship reduces the risk of cannibalism in web-building spiders but varies in structure
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Data from: Recent social history alters male courtship preferences
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Data from: Failure to reproduce period-dependent song cycles in Drosophila is due to poor automated pulse-detection and low-intensity courtship
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Data from: Two distinct genomic regions, harbouring the period and fruitless genes, affect male courtship song in Drosophila montana
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Data from: Female preference for male courtship effort can drive the evolution of male mate choice
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Data from: Female preference for multi-modal courtship: multiple signals are important for male mating success in peacock spiders
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Data from: Strategic exploitation of fluctuating asymmetry in male Endler's guppy courtship displays is modulated by social environment
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Data from: Social effects on fruit fly courtship song
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