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Fig. 4 in The paleoecology of the Late Miocene mammals from the Optima Local Fauna of Oklahoma, USA
Fig. 4. Comparison of dental tissues (dentin versus enamel) and their d13C and d18O isotopes in unidentified horse teeth from the Optima Local Fauna Miocene, late Hemphillian, Oklahoma, USA). R2 = 0.0002 for dentin, 0.5054 for enamel.
Fig. 4 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution
Fig. 4. Upper molars of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016, from Aptian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China. A. Holotype (HG-M016) from Shangheshou area; right ultimate premolar and M1–M6 in buccal (A1) and occlusal (A2) views, showing the corresponding cusps on different teeth. B. ZGY0053 from Dapingfang; left upper molars (M1–M6) in occlusal (B1), buccal (B2), and lingual (B3) views. Image in B3 is horizontally flipped for convenience of comparison.
Fig. 1 in The paleoecology of the Late Miocene mammals from the Optima Local Fauna of Oklahoma, USA
Fig. 1. δ13C values for Optima Local Fauna mammals (Miocene, late Hemphillian, Oklahoma, USA). Color differences between Agriotherium schneideri and other carnivorans (red vs. buff) and among herbivores (green vs. yellow) indicate the major statistical differences within these groups.
Fig. 5 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution
Fig. 5. Lower teeth of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016 (ZGY0053) from Aptian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of Dapingfang, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China), right c–m6 in lingual (A1) and occlusal (A2) views (with the dentary bone segmented away) and in posterobuccal view (A5), left p5–m6 in buccal (A3) and occlusal (A4) views. See also Figs. 3 and 7.
Fig. 7 in First spalacotheriid and dryolestid mammals from the Cretaceous of Germany
Fig. 7. Dryolestid mammal Minutolestes submersus gen. et sp. nov., WMNM P82304 from Busche Quarry near Balve, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, Barremian–Aptian (Lower Cretaceous). Left upper molar in occlusal (stereopair, A1), dorsal (A2), mesial (A3), labial (A4), distal (A5), and lingual (A6) views.
Fig. 12 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 12. Comparison of orthal bite force (BF) distribution across lower tooth-row at closed gape (CG) and open gape (OG). A. Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758, a generalized mammal showing relatively low orthal BF magnitudes at both CG and OG. B. Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, which shows very little ability to preserve high orthal BF at high gape among the therians sampled, but has very high orthal BF at CG. C. Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben, 1777), a taxon capable of preserving a large amount of orthal BF at high gape, and showing similar orthal BF values at CG and OG. Color bar at right is scaled to units of the combined (across-taxa) sample standard deviation in estimated orthal bite force values (generated using all muscle categories, see text). Therefore, colors within the postcanine toothrow correspond to matching, size-scaled, orthal BF magnitudes across all sampled taxa (and in Peligrotherium tropicalis as seen in Fig. 6A).
Fig. 3 in The paleoecology of the Late Miocene mammals from the Optima Local Fauna of Oklahoma, USA
Fig. 3. Mesowear discriminant function analysis for Optima Local Fauna (Miocene, late Hemphillian, Oklahoma, USA) artiodactyls and perissodactyls compared to closelyrelated taxa from other Miocene sites from North America and modern taxa (see Material and methods). A. Modern taxa (data from Fortelius and Solounias 2000; Rivals et al. 2007; Fraser and Theodor 2013; Schulz and Kaiser 2013; Taylor et al. 2014; Jones and DeSantis 2017; Mihlbachler et al. 2018). B. Equidae. C. Teleoceras. D. Artiodactyla. Abbreviations: Aa, Alces alces; Ab, Alcelaphus buselaphus; Ad, Antidorcas marsupialis; Al, Alcelaphus lichtensteinii; Am, Aepyceros melampus; An, Antilocapra americana; Ap, Axis porcinus; Ax, Axis axis; Bbp, Plains bison Bison bison; Bbw, Wood bison Bison bison; Be, Boocercus euryceros; Bt, Boselaphus tragocamelus; Bu, Budorcas taxicolor; Ca, Capreolus capreolus; Cc, Cervus canadensis; Cd, Cervus duvauceli; Ce, Ceratotherium simum; Ci, Capra ibex; Cm, Camelus dromedarius; Cs, Capricornis sumatraensis; Ct, Connochaetes taurinus; Db, Diceros bicornis; Ef, Equus ferus przewalski; Eg, Equus grevyi; Eha, Equus hartmannae; Ehe, Equus hemionus; Ek, Equus kiang; Eq, Equus quagga; Ez, Equus zebra; Gc, Giraffa camelopardalis; Gg, Gazella granti; Gt, Gazella thomsoni; He, Hippotragus equinus; Hn, Hippotragus niger; Ke, Kobus ellipsiprymnus; Lg, Lama glama; Lv, Lama vicugna; Lw, Litocranius walleri; Oc, Ovis canadensis; Oh, Odocoileus hemionus; Om, Ovibos moschatus; Oo, Ourebia ourebi; Ov, Odocoileus virginianus; Rr, Redunca redunca; Rs, Rhinoceros sondaicus; Ru, Rhinoceros unicornis; Sc, Syncerus caffer; Ta, Tragelaphus angasi; To, Taurotragus oryx; Tq, Tetracerus quadricornis; Ts, Tragelaphus scriptus; FL, Florida; KS, Kansas; NE, Nebraska; TX, Texas.
Fig. 8. 2D in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 8. 2D histograms showing distribution of estimated force magnitudes for Group 1 (G1) and Group 2 (G2) muscle recruitment scenarios (on ordinate), as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL; on abscissa). A. Canis familiaris. B. Crocuta crocuta. C. Diceros bicornis. D. Didephis marsupialis. E. Equus quagga. F. Erinaceus europaeus. G. Procyon lotor. H. Puma concolor. I. Sus scrofa. J. Tayassu pecari. K. Tupaia sp. L. Ursus arctos. Abbreviations: BF, bite force; JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.
Fig. 7 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 7. Violin boxplots showing distribution of Group 1 minus Group 2 values (on left) and closed gape minus open gape values (on right) for N = 12 representative extant therians. A. Canis familiaris (domestic dog). B. Crocuta crocuta (spotted hyaena). C. Diceros bicornis (black rhino). D. Didephis marsupialis (opossum). E. Equus quagga (quagga). F. Erinaceus europaeus (European hedgehog). G. Procyon lotor (racoon). H. Puma concolor (mountain lion). I. Sus scrofa (domestic pig). J. Tayassu pecari (white-lipped peccary). K. Tupaia sp. (treeshrew). L. Ursus arctos (brown bear). Abbreviations: T, total bite force; O, orthal bite force. Vertical axes represent magnitude values in au.
Fig. 6 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 6. Results of closed gape minus open gape analysis of orthal bite force (BF) for Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993. A. Lower left working-side hemimandible of P. tropicalis shown in closed gape (CG) and open gape (OG) position, postcanine crown surfaces are colorized by relative orthal BF (warmer colors represent higher relative orthal BF, and correspond among the taxa seen in Fig. 12). B. Violin boxplot showing distribution of total CG minus OG BF and its orthal component marginal over all locations in the woking-side postcanine toothrow. C. 2D histogram plot showing distribution of estimated bifulcral force magnitudes for CG and OG, as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL). JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.
Fig. 9. 2D in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 9. 2D histograms showing distribution of estimated force magnitudes for closed gape (CG) and open gape (OG) mandible positions (on ordinate), as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL; on abscissa). A. Canis familiaris. B. Crocuta crocuta. C. Diceros bicornis. D. Didephis marsupialis. E. Equus quagga. F. Erinaceus europaeus. G. Procyon lotor. H. Puma concolor. I. Sus scrofa. J. Tayassu pecari. K. Tupaia sp. L. Ursus arctos. Abbreviations: BF, bite force; JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.
Fig. 3 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution
Fig. 3. CT-rendered lower jaws and dentitions of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016 (ZGY0053), from Aptian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of Dapingfang, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China. A1–A3, left upper and lower dentition and dentary in medial (only teeth), lateral, and occlusal views, respectively. A4–A6, right upper and lower dentition and dentary in lateral, medial, and occlusal views, respectively. Note: angular end is not the mandibular condyle (see Fig. 6); coronoid tubercle, mis-labelled as "cp" in Han and Meng (2016: fig. 10). Upper and lower teeth in A1, A2, A4, A5 are in the original position that were preserved. Arrows in A2, A4 point to mental foramina (note the difference between the two mandibles). Question mark in A5 points to a faint groove that is not the Meckelian groove (compared to that of Origolestes lii in Fig. 6B).
Fig. 11 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 11. Comparison of orthal Group 1 (G1) vs. orthal Group 2 (G2) bite force (BF) across the lower postcanine tooth-row. Warmer colors correspond to higher G1 muscle advantage, and cooler colors correspond to higher G2 advantage. A. Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758. B. Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758. C. Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785. Note that Sus scrofa matches Peligrotherium tropicalis most closely, in having greater G1 advantage disto-buccally and greater G2 advantage mesio-lingually. Color scale is based on range of G1 minus G2 orthal BF magnitudes scaled by the value of single sample (within-taxon) standard deviation in this value.
Fig. 10 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 10. Connectivity graphs summarizing the results of pairwise randomization tests performed on the per-vertex values of orthal bite force (BF) differences. Lines connect taxa that are not found to be significantly different, and gray-scale value of individual nodes are proportional to the value of the parameter tested (e.g., dark tones are lower in value, and higher values are closer to white). A. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of mean Group 1 (G1) minus Group 2 (G2) orthal BF. B. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of F-value (variance ratio) of G1 minus G2 orthal BF. C. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of mean closed gape minus open gape orthal BF. D. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of F-value (variance ratio) of closed gape minus open gape orthal BF.
Fig. 5 in First spalacotheriid and dryolestid mammals from the Cretaceous of Germany
Fig. 5. Spalacotheriid mammal Cifellitherium suderlandicum gen. et sp. nov., WMNM P82305 (holotype) from Busche Quarry near Balve, North RhineWestphalia, Germany, Barremian–Aptian (Lower Cretaceous). Right lower molar in occlusal (stereopair, A1), ventral (A2), lingual (A3), distal (A4), labial A5), and mesial (A6) views.
Fig. 3 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 3. Comparison of 2D side-view and fully 3D definitions of parameters for the bifulcral model of mandibular leverage, shown using Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 as an example. A. Left side-view of mandible in closed gape position, showing the locations of the working-side condylar fulcrum green) and bite point fulcrum (blue). The example temporalis force vector (red) drives rotation about both of these fulcra, and produces output force vectors that are tangential to circles centered on their respective fulcra (dashed arcs). B. Oblique lingual view showing important points and lever arms corresponding to the working-side medial pterygoid force (MP-W; shown as a red arrow) using a fully three-dimensional model of bifulcral mandibular leverage. The very medially directed line-of-action for the medial pterygoid demonstrates the large differences in orientation between the condylar plane (CP; shown with a green transparent plane), bite plane (BP; shown with a blue transparent plane), and a parasagittal (side-view) plane. The three-dimensional bifulcral model calculates bite forces and joint forces by projecting load points into their respective planes, as distances perpendicular to these projections do not affect leverage calculations. Definition of numbered points: 1, mesial postcanine point (PM); 2, distal postcanine point (PD); 3, centroid of insertion area for working-side medial pterygoid (MP-W); 4, centroid of origin surface for MP-W on skull; 5, location of working-side joint (WJ); 6, projection of WJ into BP; 7, projection of an example bite vertex on the third lower molar into the CP. Abbreviations: BF, bite force; ILBP-W, in-lever of the bite plane on the working-side; ILCP-W, in-lever of the condylar plane on the working-side; JF-W, joint force on the working-side; MP-W, medial pterygoid working-side; OLBP-W, out-lever of the bite plane on the working-side; OLCP-W, out-lever of the condylar plane on the working-side. Not to scale.
Fig. 1 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 1. Reconstruction of cranial eidonomy and osteology of the meridiolestidan mammal Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993, Punta Peligro, Argentina, Early Paleocene. A. Illustrated life reconstruction (courtesy of Amy Bishop). B. Digitized skull and mandible reconstructions produced by Paéz-Arango (2008).
Fig. 2 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina
Fig. 2. Reconstructed skull and hemimandibles of meridiolestidan mammal Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993(digitized from models produced by Paéz-Arango 2008). A. Skull and mandibles articulated into closed gape position and showing the attachments of several major muscle groups. B. Right-inferior oblique view of lower left hemimandible and skull in open gape position. Here the left side of the skull is assumed to be the working-side (WS), and the right side the balancing-side (BS); see Tables 1 and 2. Colored tubes are the lines-of-action of their respective muscle category; matching colored surfaces represent corresponding estimated origin and insertion areas; and black spheres show the locations of corresponding origin or insertion centroids. Abbreviations: DM-W, deep masseter working-side; MP-W/B, medial pterygoid working-side/ balancing-side; PT-W, posterior temporalis muscle category working-side; SM-W, superficial masseter working-side.
Fig. 2 in The paleoecology of the Late Miocene mammals from the Optima Local Fauna of Oklahoma, USA
Fig. 2. Comparison of taxonomicallygrouped stable isotope values for Optima Local Fauna (Miocene, late Hemphillian, Oklahoma, USA) horses (top), artiodactyls plus Mammut sp. (middle), and Teleoceras hicksi (bottom). Color differences indicate groupings that are statistically significantly different from one another. A. Average δ13C values. B. Average δ18O values.
Fig. 6 in The paleoecology of the Late Miocene mammals from the Optima Local Fauna of Oklahoma, USA
Fig. 6. Tooth breakage percentages for Optima Local Fauna (Miocene, late Hemphillian, Oklahoma, USA), Pleistocene, and modern felids and canids. Higher percent tooth breakage corresponds with darker shade. Pleistocene and modern data from Van Valkenburgh (2009).
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