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Fig. 1 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution

Fig. 1. New specimen of Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016 (ZGY0053) from Aptian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of Dapingfang, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China. A. Partial skeleton in dorsal view that is preserved in the main slab. B. CT rendered partial skull; mostly ventral portion with teeth in dorsal (B1) and ventral (B2) views and mainly the skull roof in dorsal (B3) and ventral (B4) views.

Fig. 5 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 5. Results of Group 1 (G1) minus Group 2 (G2) analysis of orthal bite force (BF) for Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993. A. Lower left working-side hemimandible of P. tropicalis with postcanine crowns colorized by relative G1 vs. G2 advantage (yellow shows areas where G1 produces higher orthal BF, while bluer colors correspond to higher G2 BF values; white areas are where G1 and G2 forces are sub-equal). B. Violin boxplot showing distribution of total GP1 minus GP2 BF and its orthal component marginal over all locations in the postcanine tooth-row (TR). C. 2D histogram plot showing distribution of estimated bifulcral force magnitudes for G1 and G2 muscle recruitment regimes, as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL). JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.

Fig. 5 in The paleoecology of the Late Miocene mammals from the Optima Local Fauna of Oklahoma, USA

Fig. 5. Mesowear numerical values (MNS) for artiodactyls (green) and perissodactyls (yellow) from the Optima Local Fauna (Miocene, late Hemphillian, Oklahoma, USA). Color differences indicate groupings that are statistically significantly difference from one another.

Fig. 4 in First spalacotheriid and dryolestid mammals from the Cretaceous of Germany

Fig. 4. Spalacotheriid mammal Cifellitherium suderlandicum gen. et sp. nov., WMNM P82302 from Busche Quarry near Balve, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, Barremian–Aptian (Lower Cretaceous). Right upper molar in occlusal (stereopair, A1), lingual (A2), dorsal (A3), mesial (A4), labial (A5), distal (A6) views.

Fig. 3 in First spalacotheriid and dryolestid mammals from the Cretaceous of Germany

Fig. 3. Spalacotheriid mammal Cifellitherium suderlandicum gen. et sp. nov., WMNM P82308 from Busche Quarry near Balve, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, Barremian–Aptian (Lower Cretaceous). Right upper molar in occlusal (stereopair, A1), dorsal (A2), mesial (A3), labial (A4), distal (A5), and lingual (A6) views.

Fig. 7 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution

Fig. 7. Comparison of molars between of Origolestes and Lactodens. A. Origolestes lii Mao, Hu, Li, Wang, Chase, Smith, and Meng, 2020 (IVPP V13604) from Lower Cretaceous Lujiatun beds of the Yixian Formation of the Lujiatun locality, Beipiao County, Liaoning Province, China; upper molars (M1–M2) in buccal (A1) and occlusal (A2) views; lower molars (m1–m3) in occlusal (A3) and lingual (A4) views (modified from Mao et al. 2020). B. Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016 (ZGY0053) from Aptian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of Dapingfang, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China; upper molars (M1–M4) in buccal (B1) and occlusal (B2) views; lower molars (m1–m4) in occlusal (B3) and lingual (B4) views. Image in B1 has been vertically reversed for convenience of comparison. The lower teeth (m1–m4) in B3 and B4 were composite from better preserved left m2–m3 (reversed) and right dentitions (m1, m4). The angular lines indicate the symmetrical (O. lii) and asymmetrical (L. sheni) crown outline and the embrasure.

Fig. 8 in First spalacotheriid and dryolestid mammals from the Cretaceous of Germany

Fig. 8. Dryolestid mammal Minutolestes submersus gen. et sp. nov., WMNM P82307 from Busche Quarry near Balve, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, Barremian–Aptian (Lower Cretaceous). Left lower molar in occlusal (stereopair, A1). ventral (A2), labial (A3), mesial (A4), lingual (A5), and distal (A6) views. Enlarged inset of protoconid (stereo microscopic image under sided light) showing striations (arrows).

Fig 6 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution

Fig 6. Comparison of the mandibular morphologies of Origolestes and Lactodens. A. Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016 (holotype, HG-M016) from Aptian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of Shangheshou area, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China; posterior portion of the right mandible in buccal (A1) and lingual (A2) views. B. Origolestes lii Mao, Hu, Li, Wang, Chase, Smith, and Meng, 2020 (IVPP V13604) from Lower Cretaceous Lujiatun beds of the Yixian Formation of the Lujiatun locality, Beipiao County, Liaoning Province, China; right mandible in buccal (B1) and lingual (B2) views. The mandible in B was slightly displaced at the crack (marked with the arrow) and has been digitally restored (see Mao et al. 2020).

Fig. 2 in New material of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota: Comparison with Origolestes and implications for mammal evolution

Fig. 2. CT-images of the trechnotherian mammal Lactodens sheni Han and Meng, 2016, from Aprian, Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation, Caoyang City, Liaoning Province, China. A. Holotype (HG-M016) from Shangheshou area; A1, virtual skull remains with the lingual side of the right mandible exposed (see Han and Meng 2016: fig. 1); A2, virtual skull remains with the lateral side of the right mandible exposed (this side of the skull is embeded in the matrix and not visible except for the part of cheek teeth that were needle-prepared from the back side of the slab (Han and Meng 2016: figs. 1, 5); A3, a CT-slice showing the contrast of bone and matrix and revealing the roots of some teeth. B. ZGY0053 from Dapingfang, a CT-section through the skull (showing the root conditions). Note there is no tooth germ under any cheek teeth in both specimens in A3 and B.

Fig. 5 in Petrosal and cranial vascular system of the early Eocene palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus from northwestern Wyoming, USA

Fig. 5. Palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus Thewissen and Gingerich, 1989, UM 68074 (UM locality SC-133, Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA; early Wasatchian Land-Mammal Age, early Eocene), isosurface of cranium rendered from CT scans in ventral view, with neurovascular structures reconstructed based in part on Avizo segmentation (left petrosal in gold; arteries in red; veins in blue; nerves in yellow). The alisphenoid canal is broken on the left side in UM 68074 (see Fig. 1), but is reconstructed here to show the course of the ramus infraorbitalis. Abbreviations: gpn, greater petrosal nerve; ica, internal carotid artery; icn, internal carotid nerve; ijv, internal jugular vein; npc, nerve of pterygoid canal; on + oa, optic nerve and ophthalmic artery; pgv, postglenoid vein; ri, ramus inferior; rio, ramus infraorbitalis; rm, ramus mandibularis; rso, ramus supraorbitalis; V1, ophthalmic nerve, first division of trigeminal nerve; V2, maxillary nerve, second division of trigeminal nerve; V3, mandibular nerve, third division of trigeminal nerve.

Fig. 4 in Petrosal and cranial vascular system of the early Eocene palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus from northwestern Wyoming, USA

Fig. 4. Palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus Thewissen and Gingerich, 1989, UM 68074 (UM locality SC-133, Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA; early Wasatchian Land-Mammal Age, early Eocene), isosurface of right endocranium rendered from CT scans in ventral view, with neurovascular structures reconstructed based in part on Avizo segmentation (petrosal in gold; arteries in red; veins in blue; nerves in yellow). Segment of ramus superior is transparent to show hidden capsuloparietal emissary vein; holes in squamosal are damage. Abbreviations: ar, annular ridge; as, alisphenoid; ccf, caudal cranial fossa; cpev, capsuloparietal emissary vein; enav, ethmoidal nerve, artery, and vein; eo, exoccipital; fr, frontal; ica, internal carotid artery; ijv, internal jugular vein; ips, inferior petrosal sinus; mcf, middle cranial fossa; os, orbitosphenoid; pa, parietal; pca, pars canalicularis; pco, pars cochlearis; rcf, rostral cranial fossa; ri, ramus inferior; rs, ramus superior; rso, ramus supraorbitalis with accompanying vein; rt, ramus temporalis with accompanying vein; so, supraoccipital; sq, squamosal; ss, sigmoid sinus; tc, transverse crest; ts, transverse sinus; tt, tegmen tympani; va, vestibular aqueduct.

Fig. 3 in Petrosal and cranial vascular system of the early Eocene palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus from northwestern Wyoming, USA

Fig. 3. Palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus Thewissen and Gingerich, 1989, UM 68074 (UM locality SC-133, Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA; early Wasatchian Land-Mammal Age, early Eocene), isosurfaces rendered from CT scans in medial view. A. Left endocranium (petrosal in gold; parietal in yellow; basi- and alisphenoid in red; pre- and orbitosphenoid in blue; frontal in green). B. Left petrosal. C. Left petrosal with neurovascular structures reconstructed (redrawn from Avizo segmentation; arteries in red; nerves in yellow). Abbreviations: as, alisphenoid; bo, basioccipital; bs, basisphenoid; cc, cochlear canaliculus; cn VII, cranial nerve VII; crp, crista petrosa; eo, exoccipital; ew, epitympanic wing; fr, frontal; frt, foramen for ramus temporalis; gpn, greater petrosal nerve; gri, groove for ramus inferior; grs, groove for ramus superior; hF, hiatus Fallopii; hyf, hypophyseal fossa; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ica, internal carotid artery; M3, upper third molar; mcf, middle cranial fossa; os, orbitosphenoid; otc, orbitotemporal canal; otg, orbitotemporal groove; pa, parietal; pal, palatine; pc, promontory canal; pca, pars canalicularis; pco, pars cochlearis; pe, petrosal; ps, presphenoid; ri, ramus inferior; rs, ramus superior; rtp, rostral tympanic process; saf, subarcuate fossa; sips, sulcus for inferior petrosal sinus; so, supraoccipital; sof(br), sphenorbital fissure (broken); sq, squamosal; sss, sulcus for sigmoid sinus; tt, tegmen tympani; va, vestibular aqueduct.

Fig. 2 in Petrosal and cranial vascular system of the early Eocene palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus from northwestern Wyoming, USA

Fig. 2. Palaeoryctid mammal Eoryctes melanus Thewissen and Gingerich, 1989, UM 68074 (UM locality SC-133, Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA; early Wasatchian Land-Mammal Age, early Eocene), isosurface of left petrosal rendered from CT scans in ventral view. A. Solid petrosal, medial section of caudal tympanic process (1), lateral section of caudal tympanic process, medial and lateral to stapedius fossa (1, 3, respectively). B. Transparent petrosal with internal carotid artery system (in red). C. Transparent petrosal with facial nerve (in yellow) and stapedius muscle and its tendon (in red and white, respectively). Neurovascular structures redrawn from Avizo segmentation. Abbreviations: cf, cochlear fossula; ci, crista interfenestralis; cn VII, cranial nerve VII; cp, crista parotica; er, epitympanic recess; ew, epitympanic wing; fi, fossa incudis; fn, facial nerve; fsa, foramen for stapedial artery; gg, geniculate ganglion; gpn, greater petrosal nerve; ica, internal carotid artery; jn, jugular notch; pc, promontory canal; pcf, posterior carotid foramen; pp, paroccipital process; pr, promontorium; ri, ramus inferior; rs, ramus superior; rtp, rostral tympanic process; sc, stapedial canal; sf, stapedius fossa; sm, stapedius muscle; smn, stylomastoid notch; smt, stapedius muscle tendon; th, tympanohyal; tt, tegmen tympani; ttf, tensor tympani fossa.

Fig. 3 in Endocranium and ecology of Eurotherium theriodis, a European hyaenodont mammal from the Lutetian

Fig. 3. Labeled endocast of hyaenodont mammal Eurotherium theriodis (Van Valen, 1965) NMB Em12 (holotype) from?Egerkingen γ (Switzerland), MP13. Reconstruction in dorsal (A1), ventral (A2), and right lateral (A3) views. Nerves: II (ophthalmic), III (oculomotor), IV (pathetic), V1 (first branch of the trigeminal nerve), V2 (second branch of the trigeminal nerve), VI (abducens).

Fig. 6 in Endocranium and ecology of Eurotherium theriodis, a European hyaenodont mammal from the Lutetian

Fig. 6. Bivariate plot representing relative premolar size (RPS) versus relative blade length (RBL) for some selected hyaenodonts from the Eocene of Europe. Abbreviations: C., Cartierodon; E., Eurotherium, H., Hyaenodon, M., Matthodon, P., Prodissopsalis.

Fig. 2 in Endocranium and ecology of Eurotherium theriodis, a European hyaenodont mammal from the Lutetian

Fig. 2. Digital model of Eurotherium theriodis (Van Valen, 1965), NMB Em12 (holotype) from?Egerkingen γ (Switzerland), MP13?, with in situ endocast (A2, blue). Encephalization quotient.—The encephalization quotient (EQ) is brain size divided by expected body size for an average mammal of the same body size. As a ratio, it can be used to compare brain sizes among specimens with different body masses (Bertrand et al. 2017). All the EQs herein have first been estimated using the methodology provided by Jerison (1970, 1973); this equation has previously been used to calculate the EQ of Hyaenodon and Cynohyaenodon (Jerison 1973; Radinsky 1977, 1978). The equation is: EQ = E / 0.12 P0.67; where E equals volume of the encephalon in cm3; P, body mass in grams. For the purposes of comparison, we also calculated EQ using the equation provided by Eisenberg (1981): EQ = E / 0.055 P0.74, where E is the volume of the encephalon (in cm3) and P corresponds to body mass

Fig. 5 in Endocranium and ecology of Eurotherium theriodis, a European hyaenodont mammal from the Lutetian

Fig. 5. Hyaeonodont mammal Eurotherium theriodis (Van Valen, 1965) from?Egerkingen γ (Switzerland),?MP13. A. NMB.Em12 (holotype) in right lateral (A1), right lateral view with close-up of posterior part (A2), and occipital (A3) views. D. NMB.En120 right mandible bearing p3–p4 and m1–m3 in labial view.

Fig. 1 in Endocranium and ecology of Eurotherium theriodis, a European hyaenodont mammal from the Lutetian

Fig. 1. Geographic position of the fossiliferous locality of Egerkingen (A) in northwest Switzerland (B) (redrawn from Becker 2003: fig. 3-1).

Fig. 4 in Endocranium and ecology of Eurotherium theriodis, a European hyaenodont mammal from the Lutetian

Fig. 4. Schematic evolution through time of the size of the endocast of several hyaenodonts. Red, lateral sulcus; green, suprasylvia; blue, ectosylvia. Endocast morphology has been modified from Radinsky (1977) except that of Proviverra typica Rütimeyer, 1862 (Dubied et al. 2019a) and Eurotherium theriodis (Van Valen, 1965) (present paper). The endocasts are not to scale. The phylogenetic relationships are based on Solé et al. (2020).