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Figure 1 in Further geometric morphometric analysis on the genus Eysarcoris (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) from China

Figure 1. Curves selection of three characters, resampled into 30, 100 and 50 semi-landmarks respectively. A. Head, outline curved of the tylus and jugum. B. Pronotum, outline curved. C. Scutellum, outline curved.

Figure 4. Phenetic tree with 25 in A web based tool to merge geometric morphometric data from multiple characters

Figure 4. Phenetic tree with 25 dung beetles based on Procrustes distances, which are computed from the merged geometric morphometric data from characters of the epipharynx, right mandible, pronotum, elytra, hind wing, and metendosternite in lateral and dorsal view (totally 649 landmarks). Abbreviations for the tribe names: AT—Ateuchini, CO—Coprini, DE—Deltochilini, GY— Gymnopleurini, ON—Oniticellini, OP—Onthophagini, OT—Onitini, SC—Scarabaeini, SI—Sisyphini.

Figure 2 in A web based tool to merge geometric morphometric data from multiple characters

Figure 2. Description of the landmarks, curves and merged data. a). Epipharynx (Onthophagus (Palaeonthophagus) gibbulus in dorsal view), 14 landmarks and five curves. b). Mandible (right mandible of Synapsis yunnanus in dorsal view), eight landmarks and four curves. c). Pronotum (Euonthophagus amyntas), two landmarks and one curve. d). Elytra (Euonthophagus amyntas), three landmarks and one curve. e). Hind wing (right hind wing of Copris lunaris), 19 landmarks, terminology following Kukalová- Peck and Lawrence (1993). f). Metendosternite (Digitonphagus gazelle in lateral view), nine landmarks and four curves. g). Metendosternite (Digitonphagus gazelle in dorsal view), 14 landmarks and five curves. h). Merged data of all seven characters. All curves were re-sampled in 30 semi-landmarks, except the curves mentioned in different numbers of semi-landmarks, such as all curves in Figs 1a–b, and curve 1 in Fig. 1f.

Figure 3 in A web based tool to merge geometric morphometric data from multiple characters

Figure 3. Morphological variation of 25 dung beetles species based on merged geometric morphometric data from the epipharynx, right mandible, pronotum, elytra, hind wing, and metendosternite in lateral and dorsal view (totally 649 landmarks). Relative warps computed from the landmark data set merged from seven body character complexes. Each tribe is indicated by a different color. The Minimal Spanning Tree is the shortest possible set of lines connecting all points.

Figure 7 in Intra- and interspecific skull variation in two sister species of the subterranean rodent genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae): coupling geometric morphometrics and chromosomal polymorphism

Figure 7. Phenogram computed from the Mahalanobis distances between chromosomal groups for Ctenomys torquatus from Brazil (2n = 40, 44, and 46), C. torquatus from Uruguay (2n = 44u), and Ctenomys pearsoni (2n = 66 and 70). Tree made by using the neighbour-joining method with branch lengths proportional to morphological distances. Scale bar: 4 units.

Figure 4 in Intra- and interspecific skull variation in two sister species of the subterranean rodent genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae): coupling geometric morphometrics and chromosomal polymorphism

Figure 4. Kernel density estimates on principal components (PC) 1 and 2 of shape variables and convex hulls for specimens of Ctenomys torquatus (•) and Ctenomys pearsoni (Δ). Variance percentages are given on the y axis. Dark areas indicate higher density regions.

Figure 6 in Intra- and interspecific skull variation in two sister species of the subterranean rodent genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae): coupling geometric morphometrics and chromosomal polymorphism

Figure 6. Plot of the six chromosomal populations for the first two axes of the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) for three integrated views. Ctenomys torquatus, 2n = 40, 44, 44u, and 46; Ctenomys pearsoni, 2n = 66 and 70.

Figure 3 in Intra- and interspecific skull variation in two sister species of the subterranean rodent genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae): coupling geometric morphometrics and chromosomal polymorphism

Figure 3. Box-and-whisker plots showing the distribution of centroid size for the lateral view of the skull of two Ctenomys torquatus and Ctenomys pearsoni specimens, and for each sex. Upper and lower hinges correspond to the first and third quartiles, and whiskers correspond to the 95% confidence interval.

Figure 2 in Intra- and interspecific skull variation in two sister species of the subterranean rodent genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae): coupling geometric morphometrics and chromosomal polymorphism

Figure 2. Ctenomys torquatus skull, with indication of morphological landmarks for the dorsal (A), ventral (B), and lateral (C) views of the cranium. Appendix 2 gives the key to the landmarks. Scale bar: 1 cm.

Figure 6 in Evolution of the zygomasseteric construction in Rodentia, as revealed by a geometric morphometric analysis of the mandible of Graphiurus (Rodentia, Gliridae)

Figure 6. Zygomasseteric construction in extinct and extant Gliridae with the origin and insertion of the lateral (thin arrows) and medial (thick arrows) portions of the masseteric muscle. A, QP 625, Gliravus majori (Quercy, France, Oligocene), protrogomorphy; B, ITD 140 Bransatoglis micio [Itardies, Quercy, Oligocene (MP23)], derived protrogomorphy (or primitive myomorphy); C, Glis glis, myomorphy; D, Graphiurus hueti, hystricomorphy. The dotted lines are reconstructions. Abbreviations: iof, infraorbital foramen; zp, zygomatic plate. Scale bar, 5 mm.

Figure 4 in Evolution of the zygomasseteric construction in Rodentia, as revealed by a geometric morphometric analysis of the mandible of Graphiurus (Rodentia, Gliridae)

Figure 4. Plot of the discriminant analysis of the Fourier coefficients versus morphological type. Solid symbols indicate families with hystricomorphous skull: squares, Anomaluridae; rhombi, Ctenodactylidae; circles, Pedetidae; triangles, Dipodidae; stars, Graphiurinae. Open symbols indicate myomorph families: stars, Gliridae (Glirinae/Leithiinae); rhombi, Nesomyidae; circles, Muridae; triangles, Cricetidae.

Figure 2 in Evolution of the zygomasseteric construction in Rodentia, as revealed by a geometric morphometric analysis of the mandible of Graphiurus (Rodentia, Gliridae)

Figure 2. Phylogenetic hypotheses for Graphiurus (A) based on cranial and dental characters of fossils and living species (Vianey-Liaud & Jaeger, 1996), (B) based on cranial and dental characters of living species (Wahlert et al., 1993), (C) based on dental morphological characters of fossils and extant species (Daams & De Brujn, 1995), (D) based on incisor enamel microstructure (Koenigswald, 1995), (E) based on partial mitochondrial gene sequences (Bentz & Montgelard, 1999), and (F) based on partial mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences (Montgelard et al., 2003).

Figure 1 in Evolution of the zygomasseteric construction in Rodentia, as revealed by a geometric morphometric analysis of the mandible of Graphiurus (Rodentia, Gliridae)

Figure 1. The four basic types of rodent skulls. A, protrogomorphy; B, sciuromorphy; C, hystricomorphy; D, myomorphy. Thin and thick arrows show the origin and the insertion of the lateral and medial portions of the masseter respectively.

opencc-zeroMar 2023View details →

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Using geometric morphometrics to determine the 'fittest' floral shape: a case study in large-flowered buzz-pollinated Melastomataceae

PREMISE Floral shape, i.e. the relative arrangement and position of floral organs, is critical in mediating fit with pollinators and maximizing conspecific pollen transfer. This seems particularly true for functionally specialized systems. To date, however, few studies have attempted to quantify flowers as the inherently three-dimensional structures that they are, and determine the effect of intraspecific shape variation on pollen transfer. We here address this research gap using a functionally specialized system, buzz pollination, where bees extract pollen through vibrations, as a model. Our study species, Meriania hernandoi (Melastomataceae), undergoes a natural floral shape change from pseudo-campanulate corollas with more actinomorphically-arranged stamens (first day) to open corollas with more zygomorphic stamens (second day) over anthesis, providing a natural experiment to test how variation in floral shape affects male and female fitness. METHODS In one population of M. hernandoi, we bagged 51 pre-anthetic flowers and exposed half of them to bee pollinators when they were in either stage of their shape transition. We then collected flowers, obtained 3D flower models through X-ray Computed Tomography for 3D geometric morphometrics, and counted the amount of pollen grains remaining per stamen (male fitness) and stigmatic pollen loads (female fitness). KEY RESULTS We found significantly higher male fitness in open flowers with zygomorphic androecia than in pseudo-campanulate flowers. Female fitness did not differ among floral shapes. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that there is an 'optimal' shape for male fitness, while the movement of bees around the flower when buzzing the spread-out stamens results in sufficient pollen deposition regardless of floral shape.

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Gill morphology data and geometric morphometric data of Enteromius spp. in relation to dissolved oxygen gradients

<ol> <li class="western">We explored how range expansion of freshwater fishes coincident with climate warming is affected by, and then in turn affects, responses to a second environmental gradient – dissolved oxygen.</li> <li> Traits related to hypoxia tolerance, specifically various metrics of gill size and geometric morphometric proxies of gill size were quantified for a range-expanding cyprinid fish (Enteromius apleurogramma) in both its historical and novel ranges in the Mpanga River drainage of Uganda, East Africa. </li> <li> We found that E. apleurogramma followed patterns previously established in the congener E. neumayeri. Gill filament length and some other metrics were strongly divergent in long-established populations of both E. apleurogramma and E. neumayeri, with larger gills in hypoxic populations compared to normoxic ones. Range-expanding populations were intermediate to the two long-established populations, but divergent between themselves. Other gill traits such as filament number were weakly or not divergent. </li> <li> Furthermore, we show that grosser morphological traits such as opercular area can be successfully used as a proxy for gill size, both by direct measurement as well as using geometric morphometric techniques. </li> <li> Finally, we show that both parapatric conspecific populations and sympatric heterospecific populations can be used as reference points to approximate the "target" of adaptation to hypoxic conditions. </li> </ol>

opencc-zeroApr 2023View details →

Fig. 10 in Landmark and outline-based geometric morphometrics analysis of three Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 10. Outline-based discriminant analysis. Factor map of canonical variates (i.e. discriminant factors) derived from the principal components of the Normalised Elliptic Fourier coefficients of three species of Stomoxys Geoffroy, 1762, in males (A) and females (B).

Fig. 6 in Landmark and outline-based geometric morphometrics analysis of three Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 6. Configurations of the ten anatomical landmarks connected by a straight line after procrustes superimposition of three species of Stomoxys Geoffroy, 1762, in males (A) and females (B).

Fig. 2 in Landmark and outline-based geometric morphometrics analysis of three Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 2. Morphological characters of tibia and tarsus used to separate Stomoxys pullus Austen, 1909 (A), S. uruma Shinonaga et Kano, 1966 (B) and S. indicus Picard, 1908 (C).

Fig. 3 in Landmark and outline-based geometric morphometrics analysis of three Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 3. Ten landmarks digitised on wings of species of Stomoxys Geoffroy, 1762 flies for landmark-based geometric morphometrics analysis (see Table 2 for description).

Fig. 9 in Landmark and outline-based geometric morphometrics analysis of three Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 9. Configurations of the outlines after Elliptic Fourier Analysis of Stomoxys pullus Austen, 1909, S. uruma Shinonaga et Kano, 1966 and S. indicus Picard, 1908, in males (A) and females (B). Areas outlined by different colours represent shape, not size.