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FIGURE 28 in Feather mites of the genus Trouessartia (Acariformes: Trouessartiidae) from passerines (Aves: Passeriformes) in Georgia, USA
FIGURE 28. Trouessartia tigrina sp. n., details. A, B—genu, tibia and tarsus I, II of male, respectively, C—tibia and tarsus IV of male, D—setae si, c2, c3 and sRIII of male, E—spermatheca and spermaducts, F—opisthosoma of female, dorsal view, G—opisthosoma and genital apparatus of male, ventral view.
FIGURE 4. Trouessartia species, details. A in Feather mites of the genus Trouessartia (Acariformes: Trouessartiidae) from passerines (Aves: Passeriformes) in Georgia, USA
FIGURE 4. Trouessartia species, details. A—Trouessartia passerinae sp. n., opisthosoma and genital apparatus of male, ventral view, B—same, spermatheca and spermaducts, C—same, opisthosoma of female, dorsal view, D—T. capensis Berla, 1959, opisthosoma of female, dorsal view, D—T. geospiza OConnor et al. 2005, opisthosoma of female, dorsal view. Abbreviations: ae—aedeagus, ad—adanal shield, ap—apophysis of adanal apodeme, bs—basal sclerite, ea—epiandrum, bg—basal guide of external copulatory tube, gs—genital shield, hs—head of spermatheca, eh—peak-like extension of spermathecal head, pg—primary spermaduct guide, pp—postgenital plaque, pd—primary spermaduct, pm—paramere, sd—secondary spermaducts, tatranslobar apodeme, tl—terminal lamella.
FIGURE 3 in Feather mites of the genus Trouessartia (Acariformes: Trouessartiidae) from passerines (Aves: Passeriformes) in Georgia, USA
FIGURE 3. Trouessartia passerinae sp. n., details. A–C—legs I–III of male, respectively, D—tibia and tarsus IV of male, E—setae si, c2, c3 and sRIII of male, F, G— tibia and tarsus IV of female, respectively.
Data from: Of 11 candidate steroids, corticosterone concentration standardized for mass is the most reliable steroid-biomarker of nutritional stress across different feather types
<p>1. Measuring corticosterone in feathers has become an informative tool in avian ecology, enabling researchers to investigate carry-over effects and responses to environmental variability. Few studies have, however, explored whether corticosterone is the only hormone expressed in feathers, and is the most indicative of environmental stress. Essential questions remain as to how to compare hormone concentrations across different types of feathers and whether preening adds steroids, applied after feather growth. 2. We used liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry to quantify a suite of 11 steroid hormones in back, breast, tail, and primary feathers naturally grown at overlapping time intervals by rhinoceros auklet Cerorhinca monocerata captive-reared fledglings and wild-caught juveniles. The captive-reared birds were raised on either a restricted or control diet. Measured steroids included intermediates in the adrenal steroidogenesis pathway to glucocorticoids and the sex steroids pathway to androgens and estrogens. 3. Corticosterone was detected in the majority of feathers of each type. We also detected cortisone in back feathers, androstenedione in breast feathers, and testosterone in primary feathers. Captive fledglings raised on a restricted diet had higher concentrations of corticosterone in all four feather types than captive fledglings raised on a control diet. Corticosterone concentrations were reliably repeatable across feather types when standardized for feather mass, but not for feather length. Of the seven hormones looked for in uropygial gland secretions, only corticosterone was detected in one out of 23 samples. 4. We conclude that corticosterone is the best feather-steroid biomarker for detection of developmental nutritional stress, as it was the only hormone to manifest a signal of nutritional stress, and that exposure to stress can be compared among different feather types when corticosterone concentrations are standardized by feather mass.</p>
Data from: Feather corticosterone reveals effect of moulting conditions in the autumn on subsequent reproductive output and survival in an Arctic migratory bird
For birds, unpredictable environments during the energetically stressful times of moulting and breeding are expected to have negative fitness effects. Detecting those effects however, might be difficult if individuals modulate their physiology and/or behaviours in ways to minimize short-term fitness costs. Corticosterone in feathers (CORTf) is thought to provide information on total baseline and stress-induced CORT levels at moulting and is an integrated measure of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal activity during the time feathers are grown. We predicted that CORTf levels in northern common eider females would relate to subsequent body condition, reproductive success and survival, in a population of eiders nesting in the eastern Canadian Arctic during a capricious period marked by annual avian cholera outbreaks. We collected CORTf data from feathers grown during previous moult in autumn and data on phenology of subsequent reproduction and survival for 242 eider females over 5 years. Using path analyses, we detected a direct relationship between CORTf and arrival date and body condition the following year. CORTf also had negative indirect relationships with both eider reproductive success and survival of eiders during an avian cholera outbreak. This indirect effect was dramatic with a reduction of approximately 30% in subsequent survival of eiders during an avian cholera outbreak when mean CORTf increased by 1 standard deviation. This study highlights the importance of events or processes occurring during moult on subsequent expression of life-history traits and relation to individual fitness, and shows that information from non-destructive sampling of individuals can track carry-over effects across seasons.
Data from: Chemical regulation of body feather microbiota in a wild bird
The microbiota has a broad range of impacts on host physiology and behaviour, pointing out the need to improve our comprehension of the drivers of host microbiota composition. Of particular interest is whether the microbiota is acquired passively, or whether and to what extent hosts themselves shape the acquisition and maintenance of their microbiota. In birds, the uropygial gland produces oily secretions used to coat feathers that have been suggested to act as an antimicrobial defence mechanism regulating body feather microbiota. However, our comprehension of this process is still limited. In this study, we for the first time coupled high-throughput sequencing of the microbiota of both body feathers and the direct environment (i.e. the nest) in great tits with chemical analyses of the composition of uropygial gland secretions to examine whether host chemicals have either specific effects on some bacteria or non-specific broad-spectrum effects on the body feather microbiota. Using a network approach investigating the patterns of co-occurrence or co-exclusions between chemicals and bacteria within the body feather microbiota, we found no evidence for specific pro or anti-microbial effects of uropygial gland chemicals. However, we found that one group of chemicals was negatively correlated to bacterial richness on body feathers, and a higher production of these chemicals was associated with a poorer body feather bacterial richness compared to the nest microbiota. Our study provides evidence that chemicals produced by the host might function as a non-specific broad-spectrum antimicrobial defence mechanism limiting colonization and/or maintenance of bacteria on body feathers, providing new insight about the divers of the host's microbiota composition in wild organisms.
Data from: Interspecific variation in the structural properties of flight feathers in birds indicates adaptation to flight requirements and habitat
1. The functional significance of intra- and interspecific structural variations in the flight feathers of birds is poorly understood. Here, a phylogenetic comparative analysis of four structural features (rachis width, barb and barbule density and porosity) of proximal and distal primary feathers of 137 European bird species was conducted. 2. Flight type (flapping and soaring, flapping and gliding, continuous flapping or passerine type), habitat (terrestrial, riparian or aquatic), wing characteristics (wing area, S and aspect ratio, AR) and moult strategy were all found to affect feather structure to some extent. Species characterized by low wing-beat frequency flight (soaring and gliding) have broader feather rachises (shafts) and feather vanes with lower barb density than birds associated with more active flapping modes of flight. However, the effect of flying mode on rachis width disappeared after controlling for S and AR, suggesting that rachis width is primarily determined by wing morphology. 3. Rachis width and feather vane density are likely related to differences in force distribution across the wingspan during different flight modes. An increase in shaft diameter, barb density and porosity from the proximal to distal wing feathers was found and was highest in species with flapping flight indicating that aerodynamic forces are more biased towards the distal feathers in flapping flyers than in soarers and gliders. 4. Habitat affected barb and barbule density, which was greatest in aquatic species, and within this group, barb density was greater in divers than non-divers, suggesting that the need for water repellency and resistance to water penetration may influence feather structure. However, we found little support for the importance of porosity in water repellency and water penetration, because porosity was similar in aquatic, riparian and terrestrial species and among the aquatic birds (divers and non-divers). We also found that barb density was affected by moult pattern. 5. Our results have broad implications for the understanding of the selection pressures driving flight feather functional morphology. Specifically, the large sample size relative to any previous studies has emphasized that the morphology of flight feathers is the result of a suite of selection pressures. As well as routine flight needs, constraints during moulting, habitat (particularly aquatic) and migratory requirements also affect flight feather morphology. Identifying the exact nature of these trade-offs will perhaps inform the reconstruction of the flying modes of extinct birds.
Data from: Directional reflectance and milli-scale feather morphology of the African Emerald Cuckoo, Chrysococcyx cupreus
Diverse plumages have evolved among birds through complex morphological modifications. We investigate how the interplay of light with surface and subsurface feather morphology determines the direction of light propagation, an understudied aspect of avian visual signalling. We hypothesize that milli-scale modifications of feathers produce anisotropic reflectance, the direction of which may be predicted by the orientation of the milli-scale structure. The subject of this study is the African Emerald Cuckoo, Chrysococcyx cupreus, noted for its shimmering green iridescent appearance. Using a spherical gantry, we measured the change in the directional reflectance across the feather surface and over a hemisphere of incident lighting directions. Using a microCT scanner, we also studied the morphology of the structural branches of the barb. We tracked the changes in the directional reflectance to the orientation of the structural branches as observed in the CT data. We conclude that (i) the far-field signal of the feather consists of multiple specular components, each associated with a different structural branch and (ii) the direction of each specular component is correlated to the orientation of the corresponding structure.
Data from: Admixture mapping in a hybrid zone reveals loci associated with avian feather coloration
Identifying the genetic bases for color patterns has provided important insights into the control and expression of pigmentation and how these characteristics influence fitness. However, much more is known about the genetic bases for traits based on melanin pigments than for traits based on another major class of pigments, carotenoids. Here we use natural admixture in a hybrid zone between Audubon's and myrtle warblers (Setophaga coronata auduboni / S. c. coronata) to identify genomic regions associated with both types of pigmentation. Warblers are known for rapid speciation and dramatic differences in plumage. For each of five plumage coloration traits, we found highly significant associations with multiple SNPs across the genome and these were clustered in discrete regions. Regions near significantly associated SNPs were enriched for genes associated with keratin filaments, fibrils that makeup feathers. A carotenoid-based trait that differs between the taxa—throat color—had more than a dozen genomic regions of association. One cluster of SNPs for this trait overlaps the Scavenger Receptor Class F Member 2 (SCARF2) gene. Other scavenger receptors are presumed to be expressed at target tissues and involved in the selective movement of carotenoids into the target cells, making SCARF2 a plausible new candidate for carotenoid processing. In addition, two melanin-based plumage traits—colors of the eye line and eye spot—show very strong associations with a single genomic region mapping to chromosome 20 in the zebra finch. These findings indicate that only a subset of the genomic regions differentiated between these two warblers are associated with the plumage differences between them and demonstrate the utility of reduced-representation genomic scans in hybrid zones.
Data from: Bacteria and the evolution of honest signals. The case of ornamental throat feathers in spotless starlings
1.Mechanisms guaranteeing reliability of messages are essential in understanding the underlying information and evolution of signals. Microorganisms may degrade signalling traits and therefore, influence the transmitted information and evolution of these characters. The role of microorganisms in animal signalling has, however, rarely been investigated. 2.Here, we explore a possible role for feather-degrading bacteria driving the design of ornamental throat feathers in male spotless starlings (Sturnus unicolor). We estimated length, bacterial load, degradation status, and susceptibility to degradation by keratinolytic bacteria in those feathers, compared to non-ornamental adjacent feathers in males, as well as to throat feathers in females. In addition, the volume of the uropygial gland and its secretion was measured, and the secretion extracted. We also experimentally evaluated the capacity of each secretion to inhibit growth of a keratinolytic bacterium. 3.The apical part of male ornamental throat feathers harboured more bacteria and degraded more quickly than the basal part; these patterns were not detected in female throat feathers or in non-ornamental male feathers. Moreover, degradation status of male and female throat feathers did not differ, but was positively associated with feather bacterial density. Finally, the size of the uropygial gland in both males and females predicted volume and the inhibitory capacity of secretion against feather-degrading bacteria. Only in males was uropygial gland size negatively associated with the level of feather degradation. 4.All results indicate differential susceptibility of different parts of throat feathers to keratinolytic bacterial attack, which supports the possibility that throat feathers in starlings reflect individual ability to combat feather-degrading bacteria honestly. This is further supported by the relationship detected between antimicrobial properties of uropygial secretion and the level of feather degradation. 5.Our results suggest that selection pressures exerted by feather-degrading bacteria on hosts may promote evolution of particular morphologies of secondary sexual traits with different susceptibility to bacterial degradation that reliably inform of their bacterial load. Those results will help to understand the evolution of ornamental signals.
Data from: Feather steroid hormone concentrations in relation to age, sex, and moulting time in a long distance migratory passerine
In birds, concentrations of testosterone (T) and corticosterone (Cort) are closely connected with many morphological, behavioural and other physiological traits, including reproduction, metabolism, immunity, and fitness. The direction of the effect of these hormones on above-mentioned traits, and the potential feedback between hormones are in general unclear; in addition, knowledge on how age and sex can affect T and Cort concentrations is still inconsistent. Our study used a novel method to analyse testosterone and corticosterone in feathers (Tf, Cortf) based on the pre-column chemical derivatization of hormones before LC-MS/MS analysis. Unlike previously used methods (RIA, EIA), our analytical procedure allows simultaneous analysis of both hormones from small amounts of feathers (4-25 mg) and thus overcomes the problem of insufficient detection limits. We applied this method to reveal associations between Tf and Cortf hormone concentrations and feather growth, age, and sex in feathers grown during the post-breeding (flanks) and pre-breeding (tails) periods in barn swallows (Hirundo rustica). There was neither a correlation between pre-breeding and post-breeding Tf, nor between pre-breeding and post-breeding Cortf. Tail Cortf concentrations were negatively associated with tail feather growth rates. Feather hormone concentrations were correlated in the pre-breeding period, negatively in males but positively in females. Both Cortf and Tf were higher in young birds compared to older ones, indicating either an age-related decrease in hormone concentrations within individuals, or the selective disappearance of individuals with high steroid concentrations. Males and females did not differ in Cortf, but Tf concentrations were higher in males than females, particularly during the pre-breeding period. In this study, we provide an effective method for analysing hormones in feathers in an ecological context, especially in situations when the total amount of feathers available for the analysis is limited.
Data from: Rautangaroa, a new genus of feather star (Echinodermata: Crinoidea) from the Oligocene of New Zealand
We describe a nearly complete, and thus extremely rare, featherstar (Crinoidea, Comatulida) from Oligocene strata of North Otago/South Canterbury, New Zealand. A detailed analysis of this specimen, as well as newly recovered material and previously described fragmentary remains from nearby contemporaneous sedimentary units, in addition to relevant historical specimens, lead us to conclude that it cannot be placed in any currently established genus. A new genus, Rautangaroa, is proposed to accommodate it. This intact specimen of Rautangaroa aotearoa (Eagle, 2007), new combination, provides rare data on the morphology of arms and cirri. It represents the first example of arm autotomy and regeneration in a fossil featherstar, and thus has bearing on the importance of predation to the evolutionary history of this group.
Data from: Assessing costs of carrying geolocators using feather corticosterone in two species of aerial insectivore
Despite benefits of using light-sensitive geolocators to track animal movements and describe patterns of migratory connectivity, concerns have been raised about negative effects of these devices, particularly in small species of aerial insectivore. Geolocators may act as handicaps that increase energetic expenditure, which could explain reported effects of geolocators on survival. We tested this 'Energetic Expenditure Hypothesis' in 12 populations of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) and barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) from North America and Europe, using measurements of corticosterone from feathers (CORTf) grown after deployment of geolocators as a measure of physiology relevant to energetics. Contrary to predictions, neither among- (both species) nor within-individual (tree swallows only) levels of CORTf differed with respect to instrumentation. Thus, to the extent that CORTf reflects energetic expenditure, geolocators apparently were not a strong handicap for birds that returned post-deployment. While this physiological evidence suggests that information about migration obtained from returning geolocator-equipped swallows is unbiased with regard to levels of stress, we cannot discount the possibility that corticosterone played a role in reported effects of geolocators on survival in birds, and suggest that future studies relate corticosterone to antecedent factors, such as reproductive history, and to downstream fitness costs.
Data from: Feather melanin and micro-structure variation in dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis) across an elevational gradient in the Selkirk Mountains
Variation in feather melanism and microstructure can arise through sexual selection and ecological functional drivers. Melanin-based plumage traits are associated with sexual dichromatism and the intensity of sexual selection in many avian species, but also have several ecological benefits such as protection against ultra-violet (UV) radiation, camouflage, and feather strength. Additionally, feather microstructure influences thermoregulation. Plumage variation across species is well documented; however, the relative role of sexual selection and ecological drivers in intra-specific and within-population variation is less established. We investigated UV reflectance, melanism, and feather microstructure in a population of Oregon dark-eyed juncos Junco hyemalis oreganus between high (1900–2200 m a.s.l.) and low (450–800 m a.s.l.) elevations in the Selkirk Mountains to evaluate potential sexual selection and ecological drivers of variation. We found no difference in UV reflectance or lightness (melanism) of head feathers between elevations, but individuals at high elevation had lighter (less melanism) and less brown (less pheomelanin) body contour feathers than at low elevations. High elevation individuals also had longer contour feathers with more pronounced plumulaceous regions. Sexual dichromatism did not vary between elevations, leading us to reject sexual selection in favour of ecological functional drivers of plumage variation in this system. To our knowledge, this is the first study to identify within-population differences in feather melanism and microstructure between different elevations.
Data from: FEATHER: automated analysis of force spectroscopy unbinding and unfolding data via a Bayesian algorithm
Single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) provides a powerful tool to explore the dynamics and energetics of individual proteins, protein-ligand interactions, and nucleic acid structures. In the canonical assay, a force probe is retracted at constant velocity to induce a mechanical unfolding/unbinding event. Next, two energy landscape parameters, the zero-force dissociation rate constant (ko) and the distance to the transition state (Δx‡), are deduced by analyzing the most probable rupture force as a function of the loading rate, the rate of change in force. Analyzing the shape of the rupture force distribution reveals additional biophysical information, such as the height of the energy barrier (ΔG‡). Accurately quantifying such distributions requires high-precision characterization of the unfolding events and significantly larger data sets. Yet, identifying events in SMFS data is often done in a manual or semiautomated manner and is obscured by the presence of noise. Here, we introduce, to our knowledge, a new algorithm, FEATHER (force extension analysis using a testable hypothesis for event recognition), to automatically identify the locations of unfolding/unbinding events in SMFS records and thereby deduce the corresponding rupture force and loading rate. FEATHER requires no knowledge of the system under study, does not bias data interpretation toward the dominant behavior of the data, and has two easy-to-interpret, user-defined parameters. Moreover, it is a linear algorithm, so it scales well for large data sets. When analyzing a data set from a polyprotein containing both mechanically labile and robust domains, FEATHER featured a 30-fold improvement in event location precision, an eightfold improvement in a measure of the accuracy of the loading rate and rupture force distributions, and a threefold reduction of false positives in comparison to two representative reference algorithms. We anticipate FEATHER being leveraged in more complex analysis schemes, such as the segmentation of complex force-extension curves for fitting to worm-like chain models and extended in future work to data sets containing both unfolding and refolding transitions.
FIGURE 2. a in Notes on morphology and ecological difference between species of pontoniine shrimp genus Crinotonia Marin (Caridea: Palaemonidae) associated with shallow-water feather stars Phanogenia spp. (Crinoidea: Comasteridae)
FIGURE 2. a — Crinotonia attenuatus (Bruce, 1971), ovigerous female; b — Crinotonia anastasiae Marin, 2006, nonovigerous female; c, d — feather star Phanogenia gracilis (Hartlaub, 1890), host of Crinotonia attenuatus (Bruce, 1971), 15 m; e — yellow-black feather star Phanogenia sp., host of Crinotonia anastasiae Marin, 2006, 25 m; f — black feather star Phanogenia sp. (upper) and whitish-yellow Phanogenia gracilis (lower) living in the same habitats, depth 25 m.
FIGURE 1. Crinotonia anastasiae Marin, 2006 in Notes on morphology and ecological difference between species of pontoniine shrimp genus Crinotonia Marin (Caridea: Palaemonidae) associated with shallow-water feather stars Phanogenia spp. (Crinoidea: Comasteridae)
FIGURE 1. Crinotonia anastasiae Marin, 2006 (a, b, d) and Crinotonia attenuatus Bruce, (1971) (c, e, f): a, b — finger of major pereiopod II; c — chela of pereiopod I; d, e — dactylus of pereiopod III; f — appendix masculina.
FIGURE 1. Dorometra sesokonis n in A new brooding feather star of the genus Dorometra (Echinodermata: Crinoidea: Comatulida: Antedonidae) from the Ryukyu Islands, southwestern Japan
FIGURE 1. Dorometra sesokonis n. sp., OMNH Iv 3444-1: A, aboral view of centrodorsal and proximal arms; B, oral view of disk and proximal arms; C, distal arm with pinnules (aboral view); D, large and small cirri (side view). Parenthesized pinnules are absent. Abbreviations represent at: anal tube, cd: centrodorsal, ci: cirrus, eg: attached egg, mo: mouth, re: ripe egg in gonad, sy: syzygy. Scale bar 1.0 mm.
FIGURE 6. Atelophyllodes species, details. A–E in Atelophyllodes gen. n., a new feather mite genus of the family Proctophyllodidae (Astigmata: Analgoidea) from lyrebirds (Passeriformes: Menuridae)
FIGURE 6. Atelophyllodes species, details. A–E—Atelophyllodes menurae sp. n., F–I A. atyeoi sp. n. A—tarsus I of female, B—tarsus II of female, C—tibia and tarsus III of female, D—tibia and tarsus IV of female, E—spermatheca and spermaducts, F—femur and genu I of male, G—femur and genu II of male, H—tibia and tarsus IV of male, Ispermatheca and spermaducts. co—copulatory opening, hs—head of spermatheca, pd—primary spermduct, sdsecondary spermduct.
FIGURE 5 in Systematic revision of the feather mite genus Protolichus Trouessart, 1884 (Astigmata, Pterolichidae)
FIGURE 5. Dorsal view of male opisthosoma of Protolichus brachiatus (A, B) and P. strangulatus (C,D). A, Cheteromorph male, B, D—homeomorph male.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
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