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FIGURE 9. Dictyonema subinvolutum. A in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 9. Dictyonema subinvolutum. A. Habit of the species, scale = 1 cm. B. Mature thallus with basidiocarp, scale = 0.5 cm. C. Close up showing hymenophore, scale = 0.3 cm. Photos by V. Marcano.

FIGURE 2 in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 2. Details on the anatomy of Dictyonema s.lat. species from northern South America. Close up showing waxy fungal sheath in D. laurae and D. subinvolutum (scale A = 22 μm, B = 20 μm). Hapteriform hymenophore patches having several shapes and sizes in D. laurae and D. subsericeum (scale = C 300 μm, D = 800 μm). Acantholichen dendroideus showing acanthohyphidia having variable size (scale E = 5 μm, F = 6 μm, G = 4 μm). Photos by V. Marcano.

FIGURE 11. Dictyonema umbricola. A in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 11. Dictyonema umbricola. A. Habit of the species growing on bryophytes. B–C. Thalli showing irregular, ascendant to erect fibrils, with abundant basidiocarps (B, scale = 1 cm; C, scale = 0.8 cm). D–E. Mature thalli with basidiocarps resembling apothecial discs (D, scale = 1.8 mm; E, scale = 2 mm). Photos by V. Marcano.

FIGURE 5. Cyphellostereum mucuyense. A in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 5. Cyphellostereum mucuyense. A. Habit of the species growing on soil and bryophytes, scale = 2 cm. B. Mature thallus with resupinate-corticioid basidiocarp, scale = 1 cm. Photos by V. Marcano.

FIGURE 8. Dictyonema laurae. A in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 8. Dictyonema laurae. A. Habit of the species growing on bryophytes, scale = 2.5 cm. B. Thalli showing irregular, ascendant to erect fibrils, scale = 1 cm. C. Close up showing hymenophore developed on the underside, scale = 0.4 cm. D. Details on aeruginous fibrils of the thallus upper layer, scale = 0.2 cm. Photos by V. Marcano.

FIGURE 4. Acantholichen dendroideus. A in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 4. Acantholichen dendroideus. A. Habit of the species growing on mosses. B–C. Thallus showing ascendant, densely and dichotomously branched microsquamules; scale in B = 1 cm, scale in C = 0.5 mm. D–E. Close up showing microfruticose, coral-like squamules; scale in D = 0.1 mm, scale in E = 0.2 mm. Photos by V. Marcano.

FIGURE 1 in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

FIGURE 1. Details on the anatomy of Dictyonema s.lat. species from northern South America. Cyanobacterial cells (Rhizonema) involved in fungal sheath formed by jigsaw puzzle-shaped cells seen in Dictyonema andinum (scale A = 20 μm, B = 22 μm), D. laurae (scale C = 13 μm, D = 14 μm), D. umbricola (scale E = 14 μm, F = 15 μm), D. subsericeum (scale G = 30 μm). In Cyphellostereum mucuyense the cyanobacterial filaments are covered by thin elongated fungal cells, not forming jigsaw-puzzle-shaped cells (scale H = 15 μm). Photos by V. Marcano.

Dictyonema s in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

Dictyonema s.lat. occurring in the various landmasses that once formed Gondwana correlates with inferred high numbers of species, particularly in northern South America, southern Africa and India (Lücking et al. 2013a,b, Jagadesh-Ram & Singh 2014, Dal Forno 2015, Dal Forno et al. 2016, 2017, Lücking & Timdal 2016). Biogeographic evidence seems to support the hypothesis that the large number of Dictyonema s.lat. species which have a restricted distribution (endemism) in the Neotropics and Paleotropics could have evolved after the breakup of Gondwana (Jörgensen 1983, Stevens 1987, 1991, Audley-Charles & Hallam 1988, Galloway 1988, 1991, Kantvilas 2002, Gibbs 2006, Marcano 2021). However, according to molecular clock studies (Lücking et al. 2013b, 2014b, Dal Forno 2015, Dal Forno et al. 2013, 2017), the divergence of Dictyonema s.lat. could have taken place about 45 Mya during the Eocene, i.e., long after the Gondwana breakup, probably from a non-lichenized ancestor related to Eonema pyriformis (M.P. Christiansen 1960: 108) Redhead, Lücking & Lawrey (Lawrey et al. 2009: 1169) (Lodge et al. 2014). Within the Dictyonema clade, Cyphellostereum diverged rather early, about 35 Mya in the late Eocene, with many species now potentially extinct (Dal Forno 2015, Dal Forno et al. 2013, 2016) while Acantholichen is a recent group of species related to Cora and Corella (Lücking et al. 2013b, 2014b, Dal Forno et al. 2013, 2016).

Species of Acantholichen occurring only in the Neotropics show a high degree of endemism (Dal Forno et al. 2016). Of the seven species now recognized in this genus (Table 2), 71.4% (5) are known only from South America. As with Dictyonema, Acantholichen seem to be specific to substrate type and appears in the Andean small forest occurring on mosses in tree bark inhabiting mostly exposed habitats. Cyphellostereum is also represented by a high number of species restricted to the Neotropics [6 (66.6%)], while one is known only from North America, one from Southeastern United States and Puerto Rico, and another species is known only from Borneo and Fiji (Table 2). It is probably due to their unusual appearance that these lichens are getting confused with free-living cyanobacteria colonies, and that there are still undescribed species in the Neotropics. in Eight new species of lichenized Basidiomycota in the genera Acantholichen, Cyphellostereum and Dictyonema s.str. (Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) from northern South America

Species of Acantholichen occurring only in the Neotropics show a high degree of endemism (Dal Forno et al. 2016). Of the seven species now recognized in this genus (Table 2), 71.4% (5) are known only from South America. As with Dictyonema, Acantholichen seem to be specific to substrate type and appears in the Andean small forest occurring on mosses in tree bark inhabiting mostly exposed habitats. Cyphellostereum is also represented by a high number of species restricted to the Neotropics [6 (66.6%)], while one is known only from North America, one from Southeastern United States and Puerto Rico, and another species is known only from Borneo and Fiji (Table 2). It is probably due to their unusual appearance that these lichens are getting confused with free-living cyanobacteria colonies, and that there are still undescribed species in the Neotropics.

FIGURE 3 in On the first Baryonychinae (Theropoda, Spinosauridae) teeth from South America

FIGURE 3. Denticulated carinae in spinosaurids. A, LPUFS 5860 specimen; B, LPUFS 5870 specimen; C, LPUFS 5871 specimen; D, Baryonyx NHMUK PV R.9951 R.278 specimen; E, Suchomimus MNN G73-3 specimen. Scale bar equals 1 mm. Images D and E extracted and modified from Hendrickx et al. (2019; Fig. 15, p. 59).

FIGURE 5 in On the first Baryonychinae (Theropoda, Spinosauridae) teeth from South America

FIGURE 5. Results of multivariate analysis (LDA). Graphical result of discriminant analysis (bivariate plot of the first two axes [linear discriminant, LD], which account for 59.6% of the total variance); LPUFS specimens (red stars) are plotted within/ next to the Spinosauridae morphospace (delimited by green convex hulls). For the variables plotted on the graphs, see Table 2. Theropod silhouettes from phylopic.org, see acknowledgements.

FIGURE 2 in On the first Baryonychinae (Theropoda, Spinosauridae) teeth from South America

FIGURE 2. Photograph of Baryonychinae teeth from the Feliz Deserto Formation. LPUFS 5860: A, mesial view; B, distal view; C, labial view; D, lingual view; E, apical view; F, highlight of flutes (out of scale); G, highlight of enamel texture (out of scale); H, serrated carina. LPUFS 5870: I, mesial view; J, distal view; K, labial view; L, lingual view; M, apical view; N, highlight of flutes (out of scale); O, highlight of enamel texture (out of scale); P, serrated carina. LPUFS 5871: Q, mesial view; R, distal view; S, labial view; T, lingual view; U, apical view; V, highlight of flutes (out of scale); W, highlight of enamel texture (out of scale); X, serrated carina. Scale bars equals 10 mm, but in H, P, and X scale bars equals 1 mm. Anatomical abbreviations: dca-distal carina; de-denticles; ent-enamel surface texture; flu-flutes; mca-mesial carina.

FIGURE 4. Seven topologically parsimonious constrained trees retrieved from cladistic analysis using a in On the first Baryonychinae (Theropoda, Spinosauridae) teeth from South America

FIGURE 4. Seven topologically parsimonious constrained trees retrieved from cladistic analysis using a dentition-based data matrix (tree length = 1318; CI = 0.198; RI = 0.466), Bremer support is displayed below each node; LPUFS specimens (bold) are recovered within the Spinosauridae clade. Theropod silhouette from phylopic.org, see acknowledgements.

FIGURE 6 in On the first Baryonychinae (Theropoda, Spinosauridae) teeth from South America

FIGURE 6. Highlight for the denticulated carina in the specimen LPUFS 5871. Note that the individual denticles are composed of dentin, below the dental enamel. Scale bar equals 0.5 mm. Anatomical abbreviation: de-denticles.

FIGURE 1 in On the first Baryonychinae (Theropoda, Spinosauridae) teeth from South America

FIGURE 1. South American map with emphasis on the Canafístula 01 site (UTM DATUM WGS 84, Zone 24 L, 8 857 550 N/739 980 E), Sergipe State, Brazil. Silhouettes exemplify previous findings of this locality. Silhouettes from phylopic.org, see acknowledgements. Map modified from Lacerda et al. (2023).

FIGURE 8. Hyalella cuyana n in South America stygobiont crustaceans: a new species of Hyalellidae (Amphipoda) and new reports of Stygocarididae (Anaspidacea) and Protojaniridae (Isopoda) from Calingasta Valley, Pre-Andean region, San Juan, Argentina

FIGURE 8. Hyalella cuyana n. sp. (photograph), female paratype (FML-CRUST 01284), embryos in brood pouch.

FIGURE 9. A in South America stygobiont crustaceans: a new species of Hyalellidae (Amphipoda) and new reports of Stygocarididae (Anaspidacea) and Protojaniridae (Isopoda) from Calingasta Valley, Pre-Andean region, San Juan, Argentina

FIGURE 9. A Photographs and Google Earth satellite image of sampling sites (s) at the Calingasta River. Type locality of Hyalella cuyana n. sp. on the year 2014 B Photographs of Calingasta River in the vicinity of the sampling site taken in 2015.

FIGURE 5. Hyalella cuyana n in South America stygobiont crustaceans: a new species of Hyalellidae (Amphipoda) and new reports of Stygocarididae (Anaspidacea) and Protojaniridae (Isopoda) from Calingasta Valley, Pre-Andean region, San Juan, Argentina

FIGURE 5. Hyalella cuyana n. sp., male holotype (FML-CRUST 01282) and female paratype (FML-CRUST 01284). A male gnathopod 1, arrows indicate enlargement of the palmar angle B male gnathopod 2 C female gnathopod 2, arrows indicate curled setae of oostegites. Scale bars: 0.1mm.

FIGURE 2 in South America stygobiont crustaceans: a new species of Hyalellidae (Amphipoda) and new reports of Stygocarididae (Anaspidacea) and Protojaniridae (Isopoda) from Calingasta Valley, Pre-Andean region, San Juan, Argentina

FIGURE 2. Habitus (photograph) of Hyalella cuyana n. sp. A female paratype (FML-CRUST 01284) B male holotype (FMLCRUST 01282).

FIGURE 7. Hyalella cuyana n in South America stygobiont crustaceans: a new species of Hyalellidae (Amphipoda) and new reports of Stygocarididae (Anaspidacea) and Protojaniridae (Isopoda) from Calingasta Valley, Pre-Andean region, San Juan, Argentina

FIGURE 7. Hyalella cuyana n. sp., male holotype (FML-CRUST 01282). A pleopod 3 B uropod 1 C uropod 2 D uropod 3 E telson of male paratype F telson lateral view. Scale bars: 0.1mm.