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FIGURE 2 in Strepsiptera from Colombia: First record of the genus Strichotrema Hofeneder (Myrmecolacidae) and a new host-parasitoid association with Megalomyrmex cyendyra (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
FIGURE 2. Male of of Caenocholax fenyesi in lateral view [ICN: 100151]. B. Male of Caenocholax fenyesi with distinctly kidney shaped eyes, in ventral view [MPUJ: 0039551]. C. Male of Caenocholax fenyesi in lateral view [MPUJ: 0044666].
FIGURE 1 in Strepsiptera from Colombia: First record of the genus Strichotrema Hofeneder (Myrmecolacidae) and a new host-parasitoid association with Megalomyrmex cyendyra (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
FIGURE 1. Male of Caenocholax fenyesi emerging from the gaster of a worker of Megalomyrmex cyendyra. (A) M. cyendyra full body view. (B) M. cyendyra crop of gaster (C) Crop of C. fenyesi emerging [ICN: 100121].
Figure 1 in New occurrences and host records for two species of parasitic isopods (Isopodaı Cymothoidaı Bopyridae) associated with caridean shrimps (Decapodaı Caridea) from Brazil
Figure 1. Parabopyrella lata (Nierstrasz and Brender à Brandis, 1929), female (UFRGS 6629): (a), habitus dorsal view; (b), habitus ventral view; (c), antennule (left) and antenna (right); (d), barbula; (e), maxilliped; (f), maxilliped palp; (g), maxilliped spur; (h), oostegite 1, outer view; (i), oostegite 1, inner view; (j), right pereopod 1; (k), right pereopod 7; (l), left pleopods. Scale bars: (a) and (b) = 1.0 mm; (c) = 0.1 mm; (d) = 0.5 mm; (e) = 0.35 mm; (f) and (g) = 0.1 mm; (h–k) and l = 0.5 mm.
FIGURES 21–24 in Description of a new species of spider wasp Genus Machaerothrix Haupt (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) from India with reports on its host association and nesting behaviour
FIGURES 21–24. Nest and host preference of Machaerothrix salticidus Binoy, Girish Kumar & Anju sp. nov. 21. Habitat, wasp nest surrounded by cobwebs. 22. Female wasp sealing off freshly constructed nests. 23. Paralysed spider recovered during transit. 24. Spider with amputed legs recovered from wasp nest. Scale bar: 23– 2 mm; 24– 0.5 mm.
FIGURES 19–20 in Description of a new species of spider wasp Genus Machaerothrix Haupt (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) from India with reports on its host association and nesting behaviour
FIGURES 19–20. Machaerothrix salticidus Binoy, Girish Kumar & Anju sp. nov. Paratype, ♂. 19. Hypopygium, in ventral view. 20. Genitalia, in lateral view. Scale bar: 19, 20– 0.2 mm.
Data from: A comparison of diversity estimators applied to a database of host-parasite associations
Understanding the drivers of biodiversity is important for forecasting changes in the distribution of life on earth. However, most studies of biodiversity are limited by uneven sampling effort, with some regions or taxa better sampled than others. Numerous methods have been developed to account for differences in sampling effort, but most methods were developed for systematic surveys in which all study units are sampled using the same design and assemblages are sampled randomly. Databases compiled from multiple sources, such as from the literature, often violate these assumptions because they are composed of studies that vary widely in their goals and methods. Here, we compared the performance of several popular methods for estimating parasite diversity based on a large and widely used parasite database, the Global Mammal Parasite Database (GMPD). We created artificial datasets of host-parasite interactions based on the structure of the GMPD, then used these datasets to evaluate which methods best control for differential sampling effort. We evaluated the precision and bias of seven methods, including species accumulation and nonparametric diversity estimators, compared to analyzing the raw data without controlling for sampling variation. We find that nonparametric estimators, and particularly the Chao2 and second-order jackknife estimators, perform better than other methods. However, these estimators still perform poorly relative to systematic sampling, and effect sizes should be interpreted with caution because they tend to be lower than actual effect sizes. Overall, using these estimators is more effective in comparative studies than for estimating true estimates of diversity. We make recommendations for future sampling strategies and statistical methods that would improve estimates of global parasite diversity.
Community composition of arctic root-associated fungi mirrors host plant phylogeny
<p></p><p>The number of plant species regarded as non-mycorrhizal increases at higher latitudes, and several plant species in the High-Arctic Archipelago Svalbard have been reported as non-mycorrhizal. We used the rRNA ITS2 and 18S gene markers to survey which fungi, as well as other micro-eukaryotes, were associated with roots of 31 arctic plant species not usually regarded as mycorrhizal in Svalbard. We assessed to what degree the root-associated fungi showed any host preference and whether the phylogeny of the plant hosts may mirror the composition of root-associated fungi. Fungal communities were largely structured according to host plant identity and to a less extent by environmental factors. We observed a positive relationship between the phylogenetic distance of host plants and the distance of fungal community composition between samples, indicating that the evolutionary history of the host plants plays a major role for which fungi colonize the plant roots. In contrast to the ITS2 marker, the 18S rRNA gene marker showed that chytrid fungi were prevalently associated with plant roots, together with a wide spectrum of amoeba-like protists and nematodes. Our study confirms that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are present also in arctic environments in low abundance.</p><p></p>
Wolbachia infection in wild mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae): Implications for transmission modes and host-endosymbiont associations in Singapore
<p><strong>Background: </strong></p> <p><em>Wolbachia</em> are intracellular bacterial endosymbionts found in most insect lineages. In mosquitoes, the influence of these endosymbionts on host reproduction and arboviral transmission has spurred numerous studies aimed at using <em>Wolbachia</em> infection as a vector control technique. However, there are several knowledge gaps in the literature and little is known about natural <em>Wolbachia</em> infection across species, their transmission modes, or associations between various <em>Wolbachia</em> lineages and their hosts. This study aims to address these gaps by exploring mosquito-<em>Wolbachia</em> associations and their evolutionary implications.</p> <p><strong>Methods:</strong></p> <p>We conducted tissue-specific polymerase chain reaction screening for <em>Wolbachia</em> infection in the leg, gut and reproductive tissues of wild mosquitoes from Singapore using the <em>Wolbachia</em> surface protein gene (<em>wsp</em>) molecular marker. Mosquito-<em>Wolbachia</em> associations were explored using three methods— tanglegram, distance-based, and event-based methods—and by inferred instances of vertical transmission and host shifts.</p> <p><strong>Results:</strong></p> <p>Adult mosquitoes (271 specimens) representing 14 genera and 40 species were screened for <em>Wolbachia</em>. Overall, 21 species (51.2%) were found positive for <em>Wolbachia</em>, including five in the genus <em>Aedes</em> and five in the genus <em>Culex</em>. To our knowledge, <em>Wolbachia</em> infections have not been previously reported in seven of these 21 species: <em>Aedes nr. fumidus, Aedes annandalei, Uranotaenia obscura, Uranotaenia trilineata, Verrallina butleri, Verrallina </em>sp.<em> and Zeugnomyia gracilis</em>. <em>Wolbachia</em> were predominantly detected in the reproductive tissues, which is an indication of vertical transmission. However, <em>Wolbachia</em> infection rates varied widely within a mosquito host species. There was no clear signal of cophylogeny between the mosquito hosts and the 12 putative <em>Wolbachia</em> strains observed in this study. Host shift events were also observed.</p> <p><strong>Conclusions:</strong></p> <p>Our results suggest that the mosquito-<em>Wolbachia</em> relationship is complex and that combinations of transmission modes and multiple evolutionary events likely explain the observed distribution of <em>Wolbachia</em> diversity across mosquito hosts. These findings have implications for a better understanding of the diversity and ecology of <em>Wolbachia</em> and for their utility as biocontrol agents.</p>
Transcriptome-wide comparisons and virulence gene polymorphisms of host-associated genotypes of the cnidarian parasite Ceratonova shasta in salmonids
<p><i>Ceratonova shasta</i> is an important myxozoan pathogen affecting the health of salmonid fishes in the Pacific Northwest of North America. <i>C. shasta</i> exists as a complex of host-specific genotypes, some with low to moderate virulence, and one that causes a profound, lethal infection in susceptible hosts. High throughput sequencing methods are powerful tools for discovering the genetic basis of these host/virulence differences, but deep sequencing of myxozoans has been challenging due to extremely fast molecular evolution of this group, yielding strongly divergent sequences that are difficult to identify, and unavoidable host contamination. We designed and optimized different bioinformatic pipelines to address these challenges. We obtained a unique set of comprehensive, host-free myxozoan RNA-seq data from <i>C. shasta </i>genotypes of varying virulence from different salmonid hosts. Analyses of transcriptome-wide genetic distances and maximum likelihood multigene phylogenies elucidated the evolutionary relationship between lineages and demonstrated the limited resolution of the established Internal Transcribed Spacer marker for <i>C. shasta</i> genotype identification, as this marker fails to differentiate between biologically distinct genotype II lineages from coho salmon and rainbow trout. We further analyzed the datasets based on polymorphisms in two gene groups related to virulence: cell migration and proteolytic enzymes including their inhibitors. The developed SNP-calling pipeline identified polymorphisms between genotypes and demonstrated that variations in both motility and protease genes were associated with different levels of virulence of <i>C. shasta</i> in its salmonid hosts. The prospective use of proteolytic enzymes as promising candidates for targeted interventions against myxozoans in aquaculture is discussed. We developed host-free transcriptomes of a myxozoan model organism from strains that exhibited different degrees of virulence, as a unique source of data that will foster functional gene analyses and serve as a base for the development of potential therapeutics for efficient control of these parasites.</p>
FIGURES 1–6 in Thysanoptera host-plant associations, with an account of species living on Tamarix, and a new species of Lissothrips (Phlaeothripidae)
FIGURES 1–6. Lissothrips hemingi sp.n.: (1) Adult (female); (2) Adult (male); (3) Head and pronotum; (4) Meso, metanotum and pelta (female); (5) Meso and metanotum (male); (6) Antenna.
FIGURES 7–10 in Thysanoptera host-plant associations, with an account of species living on Tamarix, and a new species of Lissothrips (Phlaeothripidae)
FIGURES 7–10. Lissothrips hemingi sp.n.: (7) Abdominal tergites IV-VII (male); (8) Prostenum; (9) Head and fore leg (female); (10) Abdominal tergites IX and tube (female).
Neighboring trees regulate the root-associated pathogenic fungi on the host plant in a subtropical forest
<p>Root-associated fungi and host-specific pathogens are major determinants of species coexistence in forests. Phylogenetically related neighboring trees can strongly affect the fungal community structure of the host plant, which, in turn, will affect the ecological processes. Unfortunately, our understanding of the factors influencing fungal community composition in forests is still limited. In particular, investigation of the relationship between the phytopathogenic fungal community and neighboring trees is incomplete. In the current study, we tested the host specificity of members of the root-associated fungal community collected from seven tree species and determined the influence of neighboring trees and habitat variation on the composition of the phytopathogenic fungal community of the focal plant in a subtropical evergreen forest. Using high-throughput sequencing data with respect to the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, we characterized the community composition of the root-associated fungi and found significant differences with respect to fungal groups among the seven tree species. The density of conspecific neighboring trees had a significantly positive influence on the relative abundance of phytopathogens, especially host-specific pathogens, while the heterospecific neighbor density had a significant negative impact on the species richness of host-specific pathogens, as well as phytopathogens. Our work provides evidence that the root-associated phytopathogenic fungi of a host plant depends greatly on the tree neighbors of the host plant.</p>
Data from: Host-targeted RAD-Seq reveals genetic changes in the coral Oculina patagonica associated with range expansion along the Spanish Mediterranean coast
Many organisms are expanding their ranges in response to changing environmental conditions. Understanding the patterns of genetic diversity and adaptation along an expansion front is crucial to assessing a species' long-term success. While next-generation sequencing techniques can reveal these changes in fine detail, ascribing them to a particular species can be difficult for organisms that live in close association with symbionts. Using a novel modified restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq) protocol to target coral DNA, we collected 595 coral-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from 189 colonies of the invasive coral Oculina patagonica from the Spanish Mediterranean coast, including established core populations and two expansion fronts. Surprisingly, populations from the recent northern expansion are genetically distinct from the westward expansion and core populations, and also harbor greater genetic diversity. We found that temperature may have driven adaptation along the northern expansion, as genome scans for selection found three candidate loci associated with temperature in the north but none in the west. We found no genomic signature of selection associated with artificial substrate, which has been proposed for explaining the rapid spread of O. patagonica. This suggests that this coral is simply an opportunistic colonizer of free space made available by coastal habitat modifications. Our results suggest that unique genetic variation, possibly due to limited dispersal across the Ibiza Channel, an influx of individuals from different depths, and/or adaptation to cooler temperatures along the northern expansion front may have facilitated the northward range expansion of O. patagonica in the western Mediterranean.
Data from: Fur seal microbiota are shaped by the social and physical environment, show mother-offspring similarities and are associated with host genetic quality
Despite an increasing appreciation of the importance of host-microbe interactions in ecological and evolutionary processes, the factors shaping microbial communities in wild populations remain poorly understood. We therefore exploited a natural experiment provided by two adjacent Antarctic fur seal (<i>Arctocephalus gazella</i>) colonies of high and low social density and combined 16S rRNA metabarcoding with microsatellite profiling of mother-offspring pairs to investigate environmental and genetic influences on skin microbial communities. Seal-associated bacterial communities differed profoundly between the two colonies, despite the host populations themselves being genetically undifferentiated. Consistent with the hypothesis that social stress depresses bacterial diversity, we found that microbial alpha diversity was significantly lower in the high-density colony. Seals from one of the colonies that contained a stream also carried a subset of freshwater-associated bacteria, indicative of an influence of the physical environment. Furthermore, mothers and their offspring shared similar microbial communities, in support of the notion that microbes may facilitate mother-offspring recognition. Finally, a significant negative association was found between bacterial diversity and heterozygosity, a measure of host genetic quality. Our study thus uncovers a complex interplay between environmental and host genetic effects, while also providing empirical support for the leash model of host control, which posits that bacterial communities are driven not only by bottom-up species interactions, but also by top-down host regulation. Taken together, our findings have broad implications for understanding host-microbe interactions as well as prokaryotic diversity in general.
Data from: Simplifying understory complexity in oil palm plantations is associated with a reduction in the density of a cleptoparasitic spider, Argyrodes miniaceus (Araneae: Theridiidae), in host (Araneae: Nephilinae) webs
Expansion of oil palm agriculture is currently one of the main drivers of habitat modification in Southeast Asia. Habitat modification can have significant effects on biodiversity, ecosystem function, and interactions between species by altering species abundances or the available resources in an ecosystem. Increasing complexity within modified habitats has the potential to maintain biodiversity and preserve species interactions. We investigated trophic interactions between Argyrodes miniaceus, a cleptoparasitic spider, and its Nephila spp. spider hosts in mature oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia. A. miniaceus co-occupy the webs of Nephila spp. females and survive by stealing prey items caught in the web. We examined the effects of experimentally manipulated understory vegetation complexity on the density and abundance of A. miniaceus in Nephila spp. webs. Experimental understory treatments included enhanced complexity, standard complexity, and reduced complexity understory vegetation, which had been established as part of the ongoing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function in Tropical Agriculture (BEFTA) Project. A. miniaceus density ranged from 14.4 to 31.4 spiders per square meter of web, with significantly lower densities found in reduced vegetation complexity treatments compared with both enhanced and standard treatment plots. A. miniaceus abundance per plot was also significantly lower in reduced complexity than in standard and enhanced complexity plots. Synthesis and applications: Maintenance of understory vegetation complexity contributes to the preservation of spider host–cleptoparasite relationships in oil palm plantations. Understory structural complexity in these simplified agroecosystems therefore helps to support abundant spider populations, a functionally important taxon in agricultural landscapes. In addition, management for more structurally complex agricultural habitats can support more complex trophic interactions in tropical agroecosystems.
Data from: Comparative phylogeography of the plateau zokor (Eospalax baileyi) and its host-associated flea (Neopsylla paranoma) in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
Background: Specific host-parasite systems often embody a particular co-distribution phenomenon, in which the parasite's phylogeographic pattern is dependent on its host. In practice, however, both congruent and incongruent phylogeographic patterns between the host and the parasite have been reported. Here, we compared the population genetics of the plateau zokor (Eospalax baileyi), a subterranean rodent, and its host-associated flea species, Neopsylla paranoma, with an aim to determine whether the two animals share a similar phylogeographic pattern. Results: We sampled 130 host-parasite pairs from 17 localities in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), China, and sequenced a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) segment (~2,500 bp), including the complete COI and COII genes. We also detected 55 zokor and 75 flea haplotypes. AMOVA showed that the percentage of variation among the populations of zokors constituted 97.10%, while the within population variation was only 2.90%; for fleas, the values were 85.68% and 14.32%, respectively. Moreover, the flea Fst (fixation index) values were significantly smaller than in zokor. Although the Fst values between zokors and fleas were significantly and positively correlated (N =105, R =0.439, p =0.000), only a small amount (R2= 0.19) of the flea Fst variations could be explained by the zokor Fst variations. The two animals showed very distinct haplotype network structures from each other while co-phylogenetic analyses were unable to reject the hypothesis of an independence of speciation events. Conclusions: Zokors and fleas have very distinct population genetic patterns from each other, likely due to the influence of other sympatrically-distributed vertebrates on the transmission of fleas.
Data from: Effects of host genetics and environment on egg-associated microbiotas in brown trout (Salmo trutta)
Recent studies found fish egg-specific bacterial communities that changed over the course of embryogenesis, suggesting an interaction between the developing host and its microbiota. Indeed, single-strain infections demonstrated that the virulence of opportunistic bacteria is influenced by environmental factors and host immune genes. However, the interplay between a fish embryo host and its microbiota has not been studied yet at the community level. To test whether host genetics affects the assemblage of egg-associated bacteria, adult brown trout (Salmo trutta) were sampled from a natural population. Their gametes were used for full-factorial in vitro fertilizations to separate sire from dam effects. In total, 2520 embryos were singly raised under experimental conditions that differently support microbial growth. High-throughput 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing was applied to characterize bacterial communities on milt and fertilized eggs across treatments. Dam and sire identity influenced embryo mortality, time until hatching and composition of egg-associated microbiotas, but no link between bacterial communities on milt and on fertilized eggs could be found. Elevated resources increased embryo mortality and modified bacterial communities with a shift in their putative functional potential. Resource availability did not significantly affect any parental effects on embryo performance. Sire identity affected bacterial diversity that turned out to be a significant predictor of hatching time: embryos associated with high bacterial diversity hatched later. We conclude that both host genetics and the availability of resources define diversity and composition of egg-associated bacterial communities that then affect the life history of their hosts.
Data from: Going undercover: increasing canopy cover around a host tree drives associational resistance to an insect pest
Neighbouring heterospecific plants are often observed to reduce the probability of herbivore attack on a given focal plant. While this pattern of associational resistance is frequently reported, experimental evidence for underlying mechanisms is rare particularly for potential plant species diversity effects on focal host plants and their physical environment. Here, we used an established forest diversity experiment to determine whether tree diversity effects on an important insect pest are driven by concomitant changes in host tree growth or the light environment. We examined the effects of tree species richness, canopy cover and tree growth on the probability of occurrence, the abundance, and volume of galls caused by the pineapple gall adelgid Adelges abietis on Norway spruce. Although tree diversity had no effect on gall abundance, we observed that both the probability of gall presence and gall volume (an indicator of maternal fecundity) decreased with tree species richness and canopy cover around host spruce trees. Structural equation models revealed that effects of tree species richness on gall presence and volume were mediated by concurrent increases in canopy cover rather than changes in tree growth or host tree density. As canopy cover did not influence tree or shoot growth, patterns of associational resistance appear to be driven by improved host tree quality or more favourable microclimatic conditions in monocultures compared to mixed-stands. Our study therefore demonstrates that changes in forest structure may be critical to understanding the responses of herbivores to plant diversity and may underpin associational effects in forest ecosystems.
Data from: Aphid specialization on different summer hosts is associated with strong genetic differentiation and unequal symbiont communities despite a common mating habitat
Specialization on different host plants can promote evolutionary diversification of herbivorous insects. Work on pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) has contributed significantly to the understanding of this process, demonstrating that populations associated with different host plants exhibit performance trade-offs across hosts, show adaptive host choice and genetic differentiation, and possess different communities of bacterial endosymbionts. Populations specialized on different secondary host plants during the parthenogenetic summer generations are also described for the black bean aphid (Aphis fabae complex) and are usually treated as different (morphologically cryptic) subspecies. In contrast to pea aphids, however, host choice and mate choice are decoupled in black bean aphids, because populations from different summer hosts return to the same primary host plant to mate and lay overwintering eggs. This could counteract evolutionary divergence, and it is currently unknown to what extent black bean aphids using different summer hosts are indeed differentiated. We addressed this question by microsatellite genotyping and endosymbiont screening of black bean aphids collected in summer from the goosefoot Chenopodium album (subspecies A. f. fabae) and from thistles of the genus Cirsium (subspecies A. f. cirsiiacanthoides) across numerous sites in Switzerland and France. Our results show clearly that aphids from Cirsium and Chenopodium show strong and geographically consistent genetic differentiation, and that they differ in their frequencies of infection with particular endosymbionts. The dependence on a joint winter host has thus not prevented the evolutionary divergence into summer host-adapted populations that appear to have evolved mechanisms of reproductive isolation within a common mating habitat.
Host identity and symbiotic association affects the genetic and taxonomic diversity of the clownfish-hosting sea anemone microbiome
All eukaryotic life engages in symbioses with a diverse community of bacteria that are essential for performing basic life functions. In many cases, eukaryotic organisms form additional symbioses with other macroscopic eukaryotes. The tightly-linked physical interactions that characterize many macroscopic symbioses creates opportunities for microbial transfer, which likely affects the diversity and function of individual microbiomes, and may ultimately lead to microbiome convergence between distantly related taxa. Here, we sequence the microbiomes of five species of clownfish-hosting sea anemones that co-occur on coral reefs in the Maldives. We test the importance of evolutionary history, clownfish symbiont association, and habitat on the genetic and predicted functional diversity of the microbiome, and explore signals of microbiome convergence in anemone taxa that have evolved symbioses with clownfishes independently. Our data indicate that host identity shapes the majority of the genetic diversity of the clownfish-hosting sea anemone microbiome, but predicted functional microbial diversity analyses demonstrate a convergence among host anemone microbiomes, which reflect increased functional diversity over individuals that do not host clownfishes. Further, we identify up-regulated microbial functions in host anemones that are likely affected by clownfish presence. Taken together our study reveals an even deeper metabolic coupling between clownfishes and their host anemones, and what could be a previously unknown mutualistic benefit to anemones that are symbiotic with clownfishes
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