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FIGURE 1 in A new species of freshwater mussel in the genus Popenaias Frierson, 1927, from the Gulf coastal rivers of central Mexico (Bivalvia: Unionida: Unionidae) with comments on the genus
FIGURE 1. Collection localities for Popenaias species for molecular and morphometric analyses used in this study. Colored symbols represent target species (blue circles, Popenaias popeii; green squares, P. ganina; orange diamonds, P. berezai n. sp.). Shading indicates elevation where darker colors represent higher altitude.
FIGURE 5 in A new species of freshwater mussel in the genus Popenaias Frierson, 1927, from the Gulf coastal rivers of central Mexico (Bivalvia: Unionida: Unionidae) with comments on the genus
FIGURE 5. Right valve external views of Popenaias berezai n. sp. (A–F). (A) Holotype (CNMO 8037, ex. INHS 90397.5), 73 mm length, from the Río Valles, Estación Micos, 20 km NW of Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, Mexico; (B) Paratype (INHS 90397.1), 62 mm, from the locality same as A; (C) Paratype (INHS 90183.3), 59 mm, from the Río Tampaón (Río Pánuco) Álvaro Obregón (Pujal), at confluence of the ríos Valles and Tampaón; (D) Paratype (INHS 90183.1), 67 mm length, from the locality same as C; (E) Paratype (INHS 90175.3), 53 mm, from the Río Tancuilin, 0.5 km south of Jalpilla, San Luis Potosí, Mexico; (F) Paratype (INHS 90175.2), 50 mm, from the locality same as E. White bar denotes 1 cm scale.
Data from: Biogeography of ocean acidification: differential field performance of transplanted mussels to upwelling-driven variation in carbonate chemistry
<p>Ocean acidification (OA) represents a serious challenge to marine ecosystems. Laboratory studies addressing OA indicate broadly negative effects for marine organisms, particularly those relying on calcification processes. Growing evidence also suggests OA combined with other environmental stressors may be even more deleterious. Scaling these laboratory studies to ecological performance in the field, where environmental heterogeneity may mediate responses, is a critical next step toward understanding OA impacts on natural communities. We leveraged an upwelling-driven pH mosaic along the California Current System to deconstruct the relative influences of pH, ocean temperature, and food availability on seasonal growth, condition and shell thickness of the ecologically dominant intertidal mussel Mytilus californianus . In 2011 and 2012, ecological performance of adult mussels from local and commonly sourced populations was measured at 8 rocky intertidal sites between central Oregon and southern California. Sites coincided with a large-scale network of intertidal pH sensors, allowing comparisons among pH and other environmental stressors. Adult California mussel growth and size varied latitudinally among sites and inter-annually, and mean shell thickness index and shell weight growth were reduced with low pH. Surprisingly, shell length growth and the ratio of tissue to shell weight were enhanced, not diminished as expected, by low pH. In contrast, and as expected, shell weight growth and shell thickness were both diminished by low pH, consistent with the idea that OA exposure can compromise shell-dependent defenses against predators or wave forces. We also found that adult mussel shell weight growth and relative tissue mass were negatively associated with increased pH variability. Including local pH conditions with previously documented influences of ocean temperature, food availability, aerial exposure, and origin site enhanced the explanatory power of models describing observed performance differences. Responses of local mussel populations differed from those of a common source population suggesting mussel performance partially depended on genetic or persistent phenotypic differences. In light of prior research showing deleterious effects of low pH on larval mussels, our results suggest a life history transition leading to greater resilience in at least some performance metrics to ocean acidification by adult California mussels. Our data also demonstrate "hot" (more extreme) and "cold" (less extreme) spots in both mussel responses and environmental conditions, a pattern that may enable mitigation approaches in response to future changes in climate.</p>
Trait strengthening in mussels
<p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Plastic pollution is ubiquitous with increasing recognition of its direct effects on species' fitness. Little is known, however, about its more subtle effects, including the influence of plastic pollution on the morphological, functional and behavioural traits of organisms that are central to their ability to withstand disturbances. Among the least obvious but most pernicious forms of plastic-associated pollution are the chemicals that leach from microplastics. Here, we investigate how such leachates influence species' traits by assessing functional trait compensation across four species of intertidal mussels, through investigations of byssal thread production, movement and aggregation behaviour for mussels held in natural seawater or seawater contaminated by microplastic leachates. We found no evidence for compensation of functional traits, but for each species, microplastic leachates reinforced one trait while others remained unaffected. Two species (<i>Perna perna</i> and <i>Mytilus galloprovincialis</i>), were characterized by a resistance strategy to disturbance; they produced more byssal threads in microplastic leachate seawater than in control seawater, while motility and aggregation remained essentially unaffected. In contrast, the other two species (<i>M. edulis</i> and <i>Choromytilus meridionalis</i>), showed a resilience strategy to disturbance through reduced motility and aggregation in leachate seawater, while byssal thread production remained unaffected. These results suggest that the competitive abilities of intertidal mussels may be related to their sensitivity to microplastic leachates or other chemical disturbance. Importantly, the trait strengthening observed will affect the ability of these mussels to form spatially patterned beds, with implications for their quality as autogenic ecological engineers or foundation species. Thus, our findings have implications for the ability of mussel beds to tolerate disturbance, and hence for central ecosystem services, such as their ability to support biodiversity and enhance secondary and tertiary production. The results suggest that an inconspicuous aspect of plastic pollution has the potential to influence other communities and ecosystems in powerful ways.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
Contrasting influences on bacterial symbiont specificity by co-occurring deep-sea mussels and tubeworms
<p>Relationships between deep-sea invertebrates and bacterial symbionts, fueled by sulfide and methane, are well known, yet factors influencing symbiont specificity remain cryptic. For animals that obtain their symbionts from the environment, both host identity and geographic location can impact the ultimate symbiont partner. Bacterial symbionts were analyzed for 3 co-occurring species each of <i>Bathymodiolus</i> mussels and vestimentiferan tubeworms, from three deep methane seeps off the west coast of Costa Rica. The bacterial internal transcribed spacer gene was analyzed via direct and barcoded amplicon sequencing to reveal fine-scale symbiont diversity. Each of the three mussel species (<i>B. earlougheri, B. billschneideri </i>and<i> B. nancyschneideri</i>) hosted genetically-distinct thiotrophic endosymbionts, despite living nearly side-by-side in their habitat, suggesting that host identity is influential in driving symbiont specificity.<b> </b>The dominant thiotrophic symbiont of co-occurring tubeworms <i>Escarpia spicata</i> and <i>Lamellibrachia (L. barhami </i>and<i> L. donwalshi)</i>, on the other hand, was identical regardless of host species or sample location, suggesting lack of influence by either factor on symbiont selectivity in this group of animals. These findings highlight the specific, yet distinct, influences on the environmental acquisition of symbionts in two foundational invertebrates with similar lifestyles, and provide a rapid and precise method of examining symbiont identities.</p>
How do species barriers decay? concordance and local introgression in mosaic hybrid zones of mussels
<p>The <em>Mytilus</em> complex of marine mussel species forms a mosaic of hybrid zones, found across temperate regions of the globe. This allows us to study "replicated" instances of secondary contact between closely-related species. Previous work on this complex has shown that local introgression is both widespread and highly heterogeneous, and has identified SNPs that are outliers of differentiation between lineages. Here, we developed an ancestry-informative panel of such SNPs. We then compared their frequencies in newly-sampled populations, including samples from within the hybrid zones, and parental populations at different distances from the contact. Results show that close to the hybrid zones, some outlier loci are near to fixation for the heterospecific allele, suggesting enhanced local introgression, or the local sweep of a shared ancestral allele. Conversely, genomic cline analyses, treating local parental populations as the reference, reveal a globally high concordance among loci, albeit with a few signals of asymmetric introgression. Enhanced local introgression at specific loci is consistent with the early transfer of adaptive variants after contact, possibly including asymmetric bi-stable variants (Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities), or haplotypes loaded with fewer deleterious mutations. Having escaped one barrier, however, these variants can be trapped or delayed at the next barrier, confining the introgression locally. These results shed light on the decay of species barriers during phases of contact.</p>
Detrimental impacts of climate change may be exacerbated by density dependent population regulation in blue mussels
<p>1. The climate on our planet is changing and the range distributions of organisms are shifting in response. In aquatic environments, species might not be able to redistribute poleward or into deeper water when temperatures rise because of barriers, reduced light availability, altered water chemistry, or any combination of these. How species respond to climate change may depend on physiological adaptability, but also on the population dynamics of the species.</p> <p>2. Density dependence is a ubiquitous force that governs population dynamics and regulates population growth, yet its connections to the impacts of climate change remain little known, especially in marine studies. Reductions in density below an environmental carrying capacity may cause compensatory increases in demographic parameters and population growth rate, hence masking the impacts of climate change on populations. On the other hand, climate-driven deterioration of conditions may reduce environmental carrying capacities, making compensation less likely and populations more susceptible to the effects of stochastic processes.</p> <p>3. Here we investigate the effects of climate change on Baltic blue mussels using a 17-year data set on population density. Using a Bayesian modelling framework, we investigate the impacts of climate change, assess the magnitude and effects of density dependence, and project the likelihood of population decline by the year 2030.</p> <p>4. Our findings show negative impacts of warmer and less saline waters, both outcomes of climate change. We also show that density-dependence increases the likelihood of population decline by subjecting the population to the detrimental effects of stochastic processes (i.e., low densities where random bad years can cause local extinction, negating the possibility for random good years to offset bad years).</p> <p>5. We highlight the importance of understanding, and accounting for both density dependence and climate variation when predicting the impact of climate change on keystone species, such as the Baltic blue mussel. 08-Oct-2020</p>
A single heat stress bout induces rapid and prolonged heat acclimation in the California mussel, Mytilus californianus
Climate change is not only causing steady increases in average global temperatures but also increasing the frequency with which extreme heating events occur. These extreme events may be pivotal in determining the ability of organisms to persist in their current habitats. Thus, it is important to understand how quickly an organism's heat tolerance can be gained and lost relative to the frequency with which extreme heating events occur in the field. We show that the California mussel, <i>Mytilus californianus</i>—a sessile intertidal species that experiences extreme temperature fluctuations and cannot behaviorally thermoregulate—can quickly (in 24-48 h) acquire improved heat tolerance after exposure to a single sublethal heat-stress bout (2 h at 30 or 35°C) and can maintain this improved tolerance for up to 3 weeks without further exposure to elevated temperatures. This adaptive response improved survival rates by ~75% under extreme heat stress bouts (2 h at 40°C). To interpret these laboratory findings in an ecological context, we evaluated four years of mussel body temperatures recorded in the field. The majority (~64%) of consecutive heat stress bouts were separated by 24-48 h, but several consecutive heat bouts were separated by as much as 22 days. Thus, the ability of <i>M. californianus</i> to maintain improved heat tolerance for up to three weeks after a single sublethal heat-stress bout significantly improves their probability of survival, as ~33% of consecutive heat events are separated by 3-22 days. As a sessile animal, mussels likely evolved the capability to rapidly gain and slowly lose heat tolerance to survive the intermittent, and often unpredictable, heat events in the intertidal zone. This adaptive strategy will likely prove beneficial under the extreme heat events predicted with climate change.
Genetic diversity in the threatened freshwater mussel Lampsilis powellii
<p>North America is home to the greatest share of the world's freshwater mussel diversity; however, over 70% of its ~300 species are endangered or threatened. Lampsilis powellii, the Arkansas Fatmucket, is endemic to Arkansas and now restricted to upstream reaches of the Ouachita and Saline rivers, but the species is declining within this small range. Conservation actions such as augmenting or reintroducing populations may be necessary, but they require knowledge of the distribution of genetic variation within and among extant populations. We analyzed population structure between the South Fork Ouachita River and Saline River using a 607 base pair region of the mitochondrial COI gene and 14 microsatellites designed for Lampsilis abrupta. COI sequences showed little variation and the most common haplotype was present in both rivers. Our mtDNA sequences were indistinguishable from those of L. siliquoidea deposited on GenBank, but we were unable to make conclusions about the taxonomic distinctiveness of L. powellii. Microsatellites showed heterozygote deficiency for most loci and revealed little evidence of population structure between the two rivers. Overall, our results show low genetic diversity in L. powellii, which may reflect its small population size due to its long history of geographic isolation compounded by anthropogenic habitat destruction and fragmentation. Further genetic analyses of lampsiline taxa is needed to establish species limits for Lampsilis in the Interior Highlands.</p>
Data from: Phylogeographic and population genetic analyses reveal Pleistocene isolation followed by high gene flow in a wide- ranging, but endangered, freshwater mussel
Freshwater organisms of North America have had their contemporary genetic structure shaped by vicariant events, especially Pleistocene glaciations. Life history traits promoting dispersal and gene flow continue to shape population genetic structure. Cumberlandia monodonta, a widespread but imperiled (IUCN listed as endangered) freshwater mussel, was examined to determine genetic diversity and population genetic structure range-wide. MtDNA sequences and microsatellite loci were used to measure genetic diversity and simulate demographic events during the Pleistocene using approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to test explicit hypotheses explaining the evolutionary history of current populations. A phylogeny and molecular clock suggested past isolation created two mtDNA lineages during the Pleistocene that are now widespread. Two distinct groups were also detected with microsatellites. ABC simulations indicated the presence of two glacial refugia and post-glacial admixture of them followed by simultaneous dispersal throughout the current range of the species. The Ouachita population is distinct from others and has the lowest genetic diversity, indicating that this is a peripheral population of the species. Gene flow within this species has maintained high levels of genetic diversity in northern populations, however, all population have experienced fragmentation. Extirpation from the center of its range likely has isolated remaining populations due to the geographic distances among them.
Data from: Glacial history of the European marine mussels Mytilus, inferred from distribution of mitochondrial DNA lineages
Mussels of the genus Mytilus have been used to assess the circumglacial phylogeography of the intertidal zone. These mussels are representative components of the intertidal zone and have rapidly evolving mitochondrial DNA, suitable for high resolution phylogeographic analyses. In Europe, the three Mytilus species currently share mitochondrial haplotypes, owing to the cases of extensive genetic introgression. Genetic diversity of Mytilus edulis, Mytilus trossulus and Mytilus galloprovincialis was studied using a 900-bp long part of the most variable fragment of the control region from one of their two mitochondrial genomes. To this end, 985 specimens were sampled along the European coasts, at sites ranging from the Black Sea to the White Sea. The relevant DNA fragments were amplified, sequenced and analyzed. Contrary to the earlier findings, our coalescence and nested cladistics results show that only a single M. edulis glacial refugium existed in the Atlantic. Despite that, the species survived the glaciation retaining much of its diversity. Unsurprisingly, M. galloprovincialis survived in the Mediterranean Sea. In a relatively short time period, around the climatic optimum at 10 ky ago, the species underwent rapid expansion coupled with population differentiation. Following the expansion, further contemporary gene flow between populations was limited.
Data from: Impacts of mussel invasions on the prey preference of two native predators
Biotic invasions can result in the displacement of native species. This can alter the availability of native prey and the choices made by native predators. We investigated prey selection by two native South African predators, the west coast rock lobster Jasus lalandii and the starfish Marthasterias africana in response to the invasive mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Semimytilus algosus, and native mussels Aulacomya atra and Choromytilus meridionalis. As the diets of lobsters and starfish are broad and have been suggested to reflect prey availability, we hypothesized that they would consume the most abundant prey, regardless of its native or alien status. Laboratory studies presented predators with varying proportions of native and invasive mussels that represented pre- and post-invasion scenarios. Mussel parameters (shell strength, adductor muscle size and energy content) that may be of importance in selection by predators were compared among species. Both predators exhibited preference towards the native mussel C. meridionalis, even when it was the least abundant prey. The selection of native species occurred despite mussel parameters suggesting invasive species would be easier to consume. These findings highlight the potential for facilitation of prey invasions, especially when predators avoid alien prey and select for native comparators that may offer resistance to the invasion through inter-specific competition. It is presently unclear how often such lack of predator-driven biotic resistance acts in combination with indirect facilitation, but interrogating the behaviors that drive such outcomes will advance our understanding of successful invasions.
Data from: Impacts of microplastic versus natural abiotic particles on the clearance rate of a marine mussel
In coastal habitats, mussels are exposed to microplastic (MP; plastic <5mm) and silt, two abiotic particles that are similarly sized and lack nutrition. The addition of MP or silt may change the functional response of mussels. We measured clearance rate of Mytilus trossulus in three particle treatments (algae, MP + algae, and silt + algae) across four concentrations to 1) determine if the effects of MP and silt are similar and 2) disentangle the effects of particle type, particle concentration, and proportion of abiotic particles. Clearance rate decreased by 62% at high MP concentrations (>1,250 particles/ml) but was not affected at equivalent silt concentrations. These findings suggest high MP concentrations inhibit mussel clearance rate, more than expected by changes in particle concentration or the proportion of abiotic particles. As plastic production increases, mussel exposure to MP will increase, potentially reducing energy transfer, benthic-pelagic coupling, and water clarity.
Data from: Micro-scale environmental variation amplifies physiological variation among individual mussels
The contributions of temporal and spatial environmental variation to physiological variation remain poorly resolved. Rocky intertidal zone populations are subjected to thermal variation over the tidal cycle, superimposed with micro-scale variation in individuals' body temperatures. Using the sea mussel (<i>Mytilus californianus</i>), we assessed the consequences of this micro-scale environmental variation for physiological variation among individuals, first by examining the latter in field-acclimatized animals, second by abolishing micro-scale environmental variation via common garden acclimation, and third by restoring this variation using a reciprocal outplant approach. Common garden acclimation reduced the magnitude of variation in tissue-level antioxidant capacities by ~30% among mussels from a wave-protected (warm) site, but it had no effect on antioxidant variation among mussels from a wave-exposed (cool) site. The field-acclimatized level of antioxidant variation was restored only when protected-site mussels were outplanted to a high, thermally stressful site. Variation in organismal oxygen consumption rates reflected antioxidant patterns, decreasing dramatically among protected-site mussels after common gardening. These results suggest a highly plastic relationship between individuals' genotypes and their physiological phenotypes that depends on recent environmental experience. Corresponding context-dependent changes in the physiological mean-variance relationships within populations complicate prediction of responses to shifts in environmental variability that are anticipated with global change.
Data from: The hidden side of a major marine biogeographic boundary: a wide mosaic hybrid zone at the Atlantic–Mediterranean divide reveals the complex interaction between natural and genetic barriers in mussels
The Almeria-Oran Front (AOF) is a recognised hotspot of genetic differentiation in the sea. It is a barrier to dispersal and an ecological boundary, which explain the position of genetic breaks. However, the maintenance of genetic differentiation is likely reinforced by genetic barriers. A general drawback of previous studies is an insufficient density of sampling sites at the transition zone with a conspicuous lack of samples from the southern coastline. We analysed the genetic structure in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis with ancestry-informative loci. We discovered a 600 km wide mosaic hybrid zone eastward of the AOF along the Algerian coasts. This mosaic zone provides a new twist to our understanding of the Atlantic-Mediterranean transition because it demonstrates the two lineages can live in sympatry but hardly interbreed. This implies some form of reproductive isolation must exist to maintain the two genetic backgrounds locally cohesive. The zone ends with an abrupt genetic shift at a barrier to dispersal in the Gulf of Bejaia. Simulations in models that account for hydrodynamic features of the region support the hypothesis that sister hybrid zones could have been differentially trapped at two alternative barriers to dispersal or environmental boundaries. A preponderantly unidirectional north-south gene flow next to the AOF can also maintain a patch of an intrinsically maintained genetic background in the south and the mosaic structure. Our results concur with the coupling hypothesis that suggests natural barriers mostly explain the position of genetic breaks while their maintenance must additionally require genetic barriers.
Data from: Past climate change drives current genetic structure of an endangered freshwater mussel species
Historical-to-recent climate change and anthropogenic disturbance affect species distributions and genetic structure. The Rio Grande watershed of the United States and Mexico encompasses ecosystems that are intensively exploited, resulting in substantial degradation of aquatic habitats. While significant anthropogenic disturbances in the Rio Grande are recent, inhospitable conditions for freshwater organisms likely existed prior to such disturbances. A combination of anthropogenic and past climate factors may contribute to current distributions of aquatic fauna in the Rio Grande basin. We used mitochondrial DNA and 18 microsatellite loci to infer evolutionary history and genetic structure of an endangered freshwater mussel, Popenaias popeii, throughout the Rio Grande drainage. We estimated spatial connectivity and gene flow across extant populations of P. popeii and used ecological niche models (ENMs) and approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to infer its evolutionary history during the Pleistocene. structure results recovered regional and local population clusters in the Rio Grande. ENMs predicted drastic reductions in suitable habitat during the last glacial maximum. ABC analyses suggested that regional population structure likely arose in this species during the mid-to-late Pleistocene and was followed by a late Pleistocene population bottleneck in New Mexico populations. The local population structure arose relatively recently, perhaps due to anthropogenic factors. Popenaias popeii, one of the few freshwater mussel species native to the Rio Grande basin, is a case study for understanding how both geological and anthropogenic factors shape current population genetic structure. Conservation strategies for this species should account for the fragmented nature of contemporary populations.
Data from: Comparison of population genetic patterns in two widespread freshwater mussels with contrasting life histories in western North America
We investigate population genetic structuring in Margaritifera falcata, a freshwater mussel native to western North America, across the majority of its geographical range. We find shallow rangewide genetic structure, strong population-level structuring and very low population diversity in this species, using both mitochondrial sequence and nuclear microsatellite data. We contrast these patterns with previous findings in another freshwater mussel species group (Anodonta californiensis/A. nuttalliana) occupying the same continental region and many of the same watersheds. We conclude that differences are likely caused by contrasting life history attributes between genera, particularly host fish requirements and hermaphroditism. Further, we demonstrate the occurrence of a 'hotspot' for genetic diversity in both groups of mussels, occurring in the vicinity of the lower Columbia River drainage. We suggest that stream hierarchy may be responsible for this pattern and may produce similar patterns in other widespread freshwater species.
Data from: No evidence for host specialization or host-race formation in the European bitterling (Rhodeus amarus), a fish that parasitizes freshwater mussels
Coevolutionary relationships between parasites and hosts can elevate the rate of evolutionary changes due to reciprocal adaptations between coevolving partners. Such relationships can result in the evolution of host specificity. Recent methodological advances have permitted the recognition of cryptic lineages, with important consequences for our understanding of biological diversity. We used the European bitterling (Rhodeus amarus), a freshwater fish that parasitizes unionid mussels, to investigate host specialization across regions of recent and ancient sympatry between coevolving partners. We combined genetic data (12 microsatellite and 2 mitochondrial markers) from five populations with experimental data for possible mechanisms of host species recognition (imprinting and conditioning). We found no strong evidence for the existence of cryptic lineages in R. amarus, though a small proportion of variation among individuals in an area of recent bitterling-mussel association was statistically significant in explaining host specificity. No other measures supported the existence of host-specific lineages. Behavioural data revealed a weak effect of conditioning that biased behavioural preferences toward specific host species. Host imprinting had no effect on oviposition behaviour. Overall, we established that populations of R. amarus show limited potential for specialization, manifested as weak effects of host conditioning and genetic within-population structure. Rhodeus amarus is the only species of mussel-parasitizing fish in Europe, which contrasts with the species-rich communities of bitterling in eastern Asia where several host-specific bitterling occur. We discuss costs and constraints on the evolution of host-specific lineages in our study system and more generally.
Data from: Geographical structure of endosymbiotic bacteria hosted by Bathymodiolus mussels at eastern Pacific hydrothermal vents
Background: Chemolithoautotrophic primary production sustains dense invertebrate communities at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and hydrocarbon seeps. Symbiotic bacteria that oxidize dissolved sulfur, methane, and hydrogen gases nourish bathymodiolin mussels that thrive in these environments worldwide. The mussel symbionts are newly acquired in each generation via infection by free-living forms. This study examined geographical subdivision of the thiotrophic endosymbionts hosted by Bathymodiolus mussels living along the eastern Pacific hydrothermal vents. High-throughput sequencing data of 16S ribosomal RNA encoding gene and fragments of six protein-coding genes of symbionts were examined in the samples collected from nine vent localities at the East Pacific Rise, Galápagos Rift, and Pacific-Antarctic Ridge. Results: Both of the parapatric sister-species, B. thermophilus and B. antarcticus, hosted the same numerically dominant phylotype of thiotrophic Gammaproteobacteria. However, sequences from six protein-coding genes revealed highly divergent symbiont lineages living north and south of the Easter Microplate and hosted by these two Bathymodiolus mussel species. High heterogeneity of symbiont haplotypes among host individuals sampled from the same location suggested that stochasticity associated with initial infections was amplified as symbionts proliferated within the host individuals. The mussel species presently contact one another and hybridize along the Easter Microplate, but the northern and southern symbionts appear to be completely isolated. Vicariance associated with orogeny of the Easter Microplate region, 2.5–5.3 million years ago, may have initiated isolation of the symbiont and host populations. Estimates of synonymous substitution rates for the protein-coding bacterial genes examined in this study were 0.77–1.62%/nucleotide/million years. Conclusions: Our present study reports the most comprehensive population genetic analyses of the chemosynthetic endosymbiotic bacteria based on high-throughput genetic data and extensive geographical sampling to date, and demonstrates the role of the geographical features, the Easter Microplate and geographical distance, in the intraspecific divergence of this bacterial species along the mid-ocean ridge axes in the eastern Pacific. Altogether, our results provide insights into extrinsic and intrinsic factors affecting the dispersal and evolution of chemosynthetic symbiotic partners in the hydrothermal vents along the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Data from: Buried alive: the behavioural response of the mussels, Modiolus modiolus and Mytilus edulis to sudden burial by sediment
Sedimentation in the sea occurs through natural processes, such as wave and tidal action, which can be exacerbated during storms and floods. Changes in terrestrial land use, marine aggregate extraction, dredging, drilling and mining are known to result in substantial sediment deposition. Research suggests that deposition will also occur due to the modern development of marine renewable energy. The response to individual burial under three depths of sediment, three sediment fractions and five burial durations was investigated in two mussel species, Modiolus modiolus and Mytilus edulis in specialist mesocosms. Both mussel species showed substantial mortality, which increased with duration of burial and burial by finer sediment fractions. M. modiolus was better able to survive short periods of burial than M. edulis, but at longer durations mortality was more pronounced. No mortality was observed in M. modiolus in burial durations of eight days or less but by 16 days of burial, over 50% cumulative mortality occurred. Under variable temperature regimes, M. edulis mortality increased from 20% at 8°C to over 60% at 14.5 and 20°C. Only M. edulis was able to emerge from burial, facilitated by increased byssus production, laid mostly on vertical surfaces but also on sediment particles. Emergence was higher from coarse sediment and shallow burials. Byssus production in M. edulis was not related to the condition index of the mussels. Results suggest that even marginal burial would result in mortality and be more pronounced in warm summer periods. Our results suggest that in the event of burial, adult M. modiolus would not be able to emerge from burial unless local hydrodynamics assist, whereas a small proportion of M. edulis may regain contact with the sediment water interface. The physiological stress resulting in mortality, contribution of local hydrodynamics to survival and other ecological pressures such as mussels existing in aggregations, are discussed.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
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