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Figure 12. Tip-dated Bayesian phylogenetic analyses. A, unconstrained phylogeny using hypothesis 1 in A new dentition-based phylogeny of Litopterna (Mammalia: Placentalia) and 'archaic' South American ungulates
Figure 12. Tip-dated Bayesian phylogenetic analyses. A, unconstrained phylogeny using hypothesis 1 (H1) matrix. B, tip-dated topology constrained Bayesian phylogeny using hypothesis 1 (H1) matrix and constraining the node for the common ancestor of SANUs between the K/Pg boundary and the oldest age for the kollpaniines of Tiumpampa (66–65.075 Mya). The topological constraint in (B) was based on the topology of the undated Bayesian tree for H1. The trees in (A) and (B) represent a 50% majority rule in which tree support is indicated using Bayesian posterior probabilities in the nodes, and the node bars represent the 95% highest posterior density (HPD) for the estimated node ages. In (B), node support is only indicated for the node that was unconstrained (the undated tree presented a polytomy for that node). Litopterna is indicated with a star, but other nodes or tips of relevance are indicated in circles of different colours: blue, orders; black, families.
Figure 9 in A new dentition-based phylogeny of Litopterna (Mammalia: Placentalia) and 'archaic' South American ungulates
Figure 9. Right lower molars of South American 'condylarths' and 'didolodontids' in occlusal view. A, p4–m3 of Molinodus suarezi [cast of MHNC 13867 (mirrored)]. B, m2–m3 of Escribania chubutensis [UNPSJB PV 916 (holotype; mirrored)]. C, talonid of m2, and m3 of Raulvaccia peligrensis [MLP 90−II−12−69 (mirrored)]. D, P5–M3 of Ricardocifellia protocenica [MNRJ 1431-V, m1–m3 (mirrored); MNRJ 1450-V, p5 (mirrored)]. E, p2–m3 of Didolodus multicuspis (MACN A 10689). F, p2–m3 of Protolipterna ellipsodontoides [cast of DGM 1308M (mirrored)]. G, p1–m3 of Asmithwoodwardia scotti (cast of DGM 358M (holotype; mirrored)]. H, p4–m3 of Miguelsoria parayiruhnor (cast
Figure 10 in A new dentition-based phylogeny of Litopterna (Mammalia: Placentalia) and 'archaic' South American ungulates
Figure 10. Most parsimonious trees (MPTs) from the maximum parsimony analyses. A, Hypothesis 1 (H1). B, Hypothesis 2 (H2). H1 and H2 are different hypotheses for the paraconid of notoungulates (see main text). The numbers next to each node of the tree are the absolute Bremer supports on the left side and the Jackknife resampling support values on the right side. Litopterna is indicated with a star, but other nodes or tips of relevance are indicated in circles of different colours: blue, orders; black, families. Note that in the Discussion section, we redefined the families Anisolambdidae and Sparnotheriodontidae as the subfamilies Anisolambdinae and Sparnotheriodontinae of the family Anisolambdidae. Abbreviations: Ad, Adianthidae; An, Anisolambdidae; As, Astrapotheria; I, Indaleciidae; L, Litopterna; Ma, Macraucheniidae; Np, Notopterna; Nt, Notonychopidae; Nu, Notoungulata; Pe, Proterotheriidae; Py, Pyrotheria; S, Sparnotheriodontidae; X, Xenungulata.
Data from: Ancient collagen reveals evolutionary history of the endemic South American 'ungulates'
Since the late eighteenth century, fossils of bizarre extinct creatures have been described from the Americas, revealing a previously unimagined chapter in the history of mammals. The most bizarre of these are the 'native' South American ungulates thought to represent a group of mammals that evolved in relative isolation on South America, but with an uncertain affinity to any particular placental lineage. Many authors have considered them descended from Laurasian 'condylarths', which also includes the probable ancestors of perissodactyls and artiodactyls, whereas others have placed them either closer to the uniquely South American xenarthrans (anteaters, armadillos and sloths) or the basal afrotherians (e.g. elephants and hyraxes). These hypotheses have been debated owing to conflicting morphological characteristics and the hitherto inability to retrieve molecular information. Of the 'native' South American mammals, only the toxodonts and litopterns persisted until the Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene. Owing to known difficulties in retrieving ancient DNA (aDNA) from specimens from warm climates, this research presents a molecular phylogeny for both Macrauchenia patachonica (Litopterna) and Toxodon platensis (Notoungulata) recovered using proteomics-based (liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry) sequencing analyses of bone collagen. The results place both taxa in a clade that is monophyletic with the perissodactyls, which today are represented by horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs.
Data from: Quantifying water requirements of African ungulates through a combination of functional traits
<p>Climate and land use change modify surface water availability in African savannas. Surface water is a key resource for both wildlife and livestock and its spatial and temporal distribution is important for understanding the composition of large herbivore assemblages in savannas. Yet, the extent to which ungulate species differ in their water requirements remains poorly quantified. Here, we infer the water requirements of 48 African ungulates by combining six different functional traits related to physiological adaptations to reduce water loss, namely minimum dung moisture, relative dung pellet size, relative surface area of the distal colon, urine osmolality, relative medullary thickness and evaporation rate. In addition, we investigated how these differences in water requirements relate to differences in dietary water intake. We observed strong correlations between traits related to water loss through dung, urine and evaporation, suggesting that ungulates minimize water loss through multiple pathways simultaneously, which suggests that each trait can thus be used independently to predict water requirements. Furthermore, we found that browsers and grazers had similar water requirements, but browsers are expected to be less dependent on surface water because they acquire more water through their diet. We conclude that these key functional traits are a useful way to determine differences in water requirements and an important tool for predicting changes in herbivore community assembly resulting from changes in surface water availability.</p>
Data from: Linking genetic and ecological differentiation in an ungulate with a circumpolar distribution
Genetic differentiation among populations may arise from the disruption of gene flow due to local adaptation to distinct environments and/or neutral accumulation of mutations and genetic drift resulted from geographical isolation. Quantifying the role of these processes in determining the genetic structure of natural populations remains challenging. Here, we analyze the relative contribution of isolation-by-resistance (IBR), isolation-by-environment (IBE), genetic drift and historical isolation in allopatry during Pleistocene glacial cycles on shaping patterns of genetic differentiation in caribou/reindeer populations (Rangifer tarandus) across the entire distribution range of the species. Our study integrates analyses at range-wide and regional scales to partial out the effects of historical and contemporary isolation mechanisms. At the circumpolar scale, our results indicate that genetic differentiation is predominantly explained by IBR and historical isolation. At a regional scale, we found that environmental dissimilarity and population size significantly explained the spatial distribution of genetic variation among populations belonging to the Euro-Beringian lineage within North America. In contrast, genetic differentiation among populations within the North American lineage was predominantly explained by IBR and population size, but not IBE. We also found discrepancies between genetic and ecotype designation across the Holarctic species distribution range. Overall, these results indicate that multiple isolating mechanisms have played roles in shaping the spatial distribution of genetic variation across the distribution range of a large mammal with high potential for gene flow. Considering multiple spatial scales and simultaneously testing a comprehensive suite of potential isolating mechanisms, our study contributes to understand the ecological and evolutionary processes underlying organism–landscape interactions.
Data from: Future suitability of habitat in a migratory ungulate under climate change
With climate change, the effect of global warming on snow cover is expected to cause range expansion and enhance habitat suitability for species at their northern distribution limits. However, how this depend on landscape topography and sex in size-dimorphic species remains uncertain, and is further complicated for migratory animals following climate-driven seasonal resource fluctuations across vast landscapes. Using 11 years of data from a partially migratory ungulate at their northern distribution ranges, the red deer (Cervus elaphus), we predicted sex-specific summer and winter habitat suitability in diverse landscapes under medium and severe global warming. We found large increases in future winter habitat suitability, resulting in expansion of winter ranges as currently unsuitable habitat became suitable. Even moderate warming decreased snow cover substantially, with no suitability difference between warming scenarios. Winter ranges will hence not expand linearly with warming, even for species at their northern distribution limits. Although less pronounced than in winter, summer ranges also expanded and more so under severe warming. Summer habitat suitability was positively correlated with landscape topography and ranges expanded more for females than males. Our study highlights the complexity of predicting future habitat suitability for conservation and management of size-dimorphic, migratory species under global warming.
Spatial segregation between wild ungulates and livestock outside protected areas in the lowlands of Nepal
<p>Understanding how wildlife interacts with human activities across non-protected areas are critical for conservation. This is especially true for ungulates that inhabit human-dominated landscapes outside the protected area system in Nepal, where wildlife often coexist with livestock. Here we investigated how elevation, agricultural land, distance from roads, and the relative abundance of livestock influenced wild ungulate (chital (<i>Axis axis</i>), nilgai, barking deer (<i>Muntiacus muntjak</i>), wild boar (<i>Sus scrofa</i>) and sambar (<i>Rusa unicolor</i>)) abundance and occurrence. We counted all individuals of wild ungulates and livestock along 35 transects conducted between November 2017 and March 2018 in Bara and Rautahat forests in the lowlands of Nepal. We assessed abundance and occurrence relation to covariates using Generalized Linear Models. We found that livestock outnumbered wild ungulates 6 to 1. Wild boar was the most abundant wild ungulate, followed by nilgai, chital, barking deer and sambar. We found that elevation and livestock abundance were the most important covariates affecting the overall abundance of wild ungulates and the distribution of each individual ungulate species. Our results suggest spatial segregation between wild ungulates, which occur mainly on highlands, and livestock that concentrate across lowland habitats. Our results provide critical information to improve conservation in community forest areas of Nepal, where wildlife interacts with people and their livestock. Finding better strategies to allow the coexistence of ungulates with people and their livestock is imperative if they are to persist into the future.</p>
Data for: Assessment of the accuracy of counting large ungulate species (red deer Cervus elaphus) with UAV-mounted thermal infrared cameras during night flights
<p>Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly used in wildlife surveying, including estimation of population densities. It is essential that we evaluate and test new survey methods to guide optimal sampling strategies. This study aimed to assess the accuracy of using a UAV-mounted thermal infrared (TIR) camera to count red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em> populations, and how this was influenced by flight season, height and velocity, in order to help guide future census design. We flew 57 flights across a captive population of red deer in a 13 ha deer park enclosure of semi-natural habitat, representative of the species' range in northern Germany. Flights and image assessments were performed with no prior knowledge of actual population size. Accuracy was quantified by comparing real population size (known only to deer park staff) and independently estimated population sizes from UAV TIR images. Accuracy was significantly influenced by ecological season (early and late winter, spring and early summer) and height. Across all seasons, lower flights (100 m) performed better than higher ones (120 m), with lower flights in early winter and early summer being on average accurate to within 1% of actual population counts. For the season where we had the largest range of temperatures between flights (late winter) we found that accuracy was highest when temperatures were lowest. Flights were also able to identify all five stags (defined as a male deer ≥2 years old) present in early summer, but not in spring. Deer appeared to avoid the landing/take-off area, but there were no noted behavioural responses to drones flying over animals when at constant height and velocity during surveys. Our results indicate that UAV-mounted TIR camera have the potential to accurately count populations of large ungulate species, but that flight season, height and potentially temperature need to be taken into account to maximise accuracy. This approach has the potential to be scaled up to more accurately estimate densities of wild populations compared to existing approaches.</p>
Data from: Ungulate saliva inhibits a grass-endophyte mutualism
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Data from: Metabarcoding reveals diet diversity in an ungulate community in Thailand
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Data from: Harvest and density-dependent predation drive long-term population decline in a northern ungulate
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Responses to natural gas development differ by season for two migratory ungulates
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Data from: Linking landscape-scale differences in forage to ungulate nutritional ecology
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Data from: Quantifying water requirements of African ungulates through a combination of functional traits
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Northward range expansion of rooting ungulates decreases detritivore and predatory mite abundances in boreal forests
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Data from: A migratory northern ungulate in the pursuit of spring: jumping or surfing the green wave?
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Data from: Browsed twig environmental DNA: diagnostic PCR to identify ungulate species
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Data from: Genetic analysis of life-history constraint and evolution in a wild ungulate population
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Data from: Immunogenetic heterogeneity in a widespread ungulate: the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)
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