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Distribution. Widespread in the C and W regions of S Africa, reaching to about 15° N in SW Angola. Occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but also occurs in regions with higher precipitation and denser vegetation, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa's Western Cape Province. Cape Foxes have expanded their range over recent decades to the SW, where the species reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines. May occur in SW Swaziland, and possibly also in Lesotho. in Canidae

Distribution. Widespread in the C and W regions of S Africa, reaching to about 15° N in SW Angola. Occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but also occurs in regions with higher precipitation and denser vegetation, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa's Western Cape Province. Cape Foxes have expanded their range over recent decades to the SW, where the species reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines. May occur in SW Swaziland, and possibly also in Lesotho.

Subspecies and Distribution. C. l. latrans Say, 1823 — S Canada and USA (Great Plains region). C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839 — SE Mexico. C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903 — Mexico (N Baja California) and USA (S California). C. I. dickeyi Nelson, 1932 — Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. C. I. frustror Woodhouse, 1850 — USA (Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma & E Texas). C. I. goldmani Merriam, 1904 — Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico. C. I. hondurensis Goldman, 1936 — E Honduras. impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903 — W Mexico. ~ NDOD = incolatus Hall, 1934 — Alaska and NW Canada. jamest Townsend, 1912 — Mexico (Tiburon I, Baja California). lestes Merriam, 1897 — SW Canada and W USA (Intermountain Region & NW). mearnsi Merriam, 1897 — NW Mexico and SW USA. OOOO microdon Merriam, 1897 — NE Mexico and S USA (S Texas). ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829 — W USA (W coast). peninsulae Merriam, 1897 — Mexico (S Baja California). texensis Bailey, 1905 — S USA (W Texas & New Mexico). thamnosJackson, 1949 — N-C Canada and E USA. umpquensisJackson, 1949 — USA (NW coast). vigilis Merriam, 1897 — SW Mexico. ~~ Coyotes did not originally occur on the USA E coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia (subspecies unknown). in Canidae

Subspecies and Distribution. C. l. latrans Say, 1823 — S Canada and USA (Great Plains region). C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839 — SE Mexico. C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903 — Mexico (N Baja California) and USA (S California). C. I. dickeyi Nelson, 1932 — Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. C. I. frustror Woodhouse, 1850 — USA (Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma & E Texas). C. I. goldmani Merriam, 1904 — Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico. C. I. hondurensis Goldman, 1936 — E Honduras. impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903 — W Mexico. ~ NDOD = incolatus Hall, 1934 — Alaska and NW Canada. jamest Townsend, 1912 — Mexico (Tiburon I, Baja California). lestes Merriam, 1897 — SW Canada and W USA (Intermountain Region & NW). mearnsi Merriam, 1897 — NW Mexico and SW USA. OOOO microdon Merriam, 1897 — NE Mexico and S USA (S Texas). ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829 — W USA (W coast). peninsulae Merriam, 1897 — Mexico (S Baja California). texensis Bailey, 1905 — S USA (W Texas & New Mexico). thamnosJackson, 1949 — N-C Canada and E USA. umpquensisJackson, 1949 — USA (NW coast). vigilis Merriam, 1897 — SW Mexico. ~~ Coyotes did not originally occur on the USA E coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia (subspecies unknown).

Subspecies and Distribution. G. f. fasciata Gmelin, 1788 — C & SE Madagascar (at least as far N as the Kianjavato region). G. f. striata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826 — CE Madagascar (from near Brickaville and N to the Sihanaka Forest E of Lac Alaotra). in Eupleridae

Subspecies and Distribution. G. f. fasciata Gmelin, 1788 — C & SE Madagascar (at least as far N as the Kianjavato region). G. f. striata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826 — CE Madagascar (from near Brickaville and N to the Sihanaka Forest E of Lac Alaotra).

Subspecies and Distribution. C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785 — Colombia and Venezuela. C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838 — NE & C Brazil. C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788 — SE Mexico (Veracruz and along coast to Campeche). C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812 — Ecuador. C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924 — higher elevation in N Peru. C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905 — Costa Rica, W Panama. C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943 — SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900 — low hot desert regions of N Peru. in Mephitidae

Subspecies and Distribution. C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785 — Colombia and Venezuela. C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838 — NE & C Brazil. C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788 — SE Mexico (Veracruz and along coast to Campeche). C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812 — Ecuador. C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924 — higher elevation in N Peru. C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905 — Costa Rica, W Panama. C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943 — SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900 — low hot desert regions of N Peru.

Subspecies and Distribution. S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898 — W Mexico (Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa & Nayarit). S. p. australis Hall, 1938 — W Mexico (Pacific coastal region from Michoacan to Guerrero & Oaxaca). S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979 — W Mexico (Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima). in Mephitidae

Subspecies and Distribution. S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898 — W Mexico (Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa & Nayarit). S. p. australis Hall, 1938 — W Mexico (Pacific coastal region from Michoacan to Guerrero & Oaxaca). S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979 — W Mexico (Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).

Subspecies and Distribution. C. Ll. leuconotus Lichtenstein 1832 — S USA (S Arizona, New Mexico & Texas), most of Mexico (except Yucatan Peninsula) and S to Nicaragua. C. I. figginsi EW. Miller, 1925 — USA (SE Colorado, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma panhandle). C. l. telmalestes Bailey 1905 — S USA (Big Thicket region of E Texas). in Mephitidae

Subspecies and Distribution. C. Ll. leuconotus Lichtenstein 1832 — S USA (S Arizona, New Mexico & Texas), most of Mexico (except Yucatan Peninsula) and S to Nicaragua. C. I. figginsi EW. Miller, 1925 — USA (SE Colorado, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma panhandle). C. l. telmalestes Bailey 1905 — S USA (Big Thicket region of E Texas).

Subspecies and Distribution. M. d. decemlineata Grandidier, 1867 — CW Madagascar (Menabe region). M. d. lineata Pocock, 1915 — SW Madagascar (S of the Mangoky River). The previous records ofthis form in the Lac Tsimanampetsotsa area are misidentified specimens of Grandidier's Vontsira. in Eupleridae

Subspecies and Distribution. M. d. decemlineata Grandidier, 1867 — CW Madagascar (Menabe region). M. d. lineata Pocock, 1915 — SW Madagascar (S of the Mangoky River). The previous records ofthis form in the Lac Tsimanampetsotsa area are misidentified specimens of Grandidier's Vontsira.

Subspecies and distribution. G. e. elegans Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1837 — E Madagascar (from the region surrounding the Andapa Basin S to Tolagnaro). G. e. dambrensis Tate & Rand, 1941 — N Madagascar (originally described from Montagne d'Ambre, but animals at Ankarana are also referable to this form). G. e. occidentalis Albignac, 1971 — CW Madagascar (limestone regions of Bemaraha, Namoroka & Kelifely). in Eupleridae

Subspecies and distribution. G. e. elegans Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1837 — E Madagascar (from the region surrounding the Andapa Basin S to Tolagnaro). G. e. dambrensis Tate & Rand, 1941 — N Madagascar (originally described from Montagne d'Ambre, but animals at Ankarana are also referable to this form). G. e. occidentalis Albignac, 1971 — CW Madagascar (limestone regions of Bemaraha, Namoroka & Kelifely).

Subspecies and Distribution. U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758 — Europe and W Russia. U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896 — most of Alaska (excluding Alaska Peninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group). U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853 — NE Russia (Kamchatka Peninsula & N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk). U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824 — Russia (Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatka and more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia. U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896 — SE Alaska (N of Alexander Archipelago). U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902 — Alaska peninsula. U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815 —W Canada (Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia & Alberta), inland W USA (extirpated from S Wyoming to Mexico). U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826 — N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Gobi Desert). U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867 — Russia (Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/Amur river region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan (Hokkaido). U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896 — Alaska (Kodiak Island & nearby islands). U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853 — Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal. U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896 — SE Alaska (Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area). U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914 — W Canada (W British Columbia), and formerly W USA (W Washington and Oregon). U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828 — Middle East, from Turkey to Iran (extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. in Ursidae

Subspecies and Distribution. U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758 — Europe and W Russia. U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896 — most of Alaska (excluding Alaska Peninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group). U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853 — NE Russia (Kamchatka Peninsula & N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk). U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824 — Russia (Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatka and more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia. U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896 — SE Alaska (N of Alexander Archipelago). U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902 — Alaska peninsula. U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815 —W Canada (Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia & Alberta), inland W USA (extirpated from S Wyoming to Mexico). U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826 — N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Gobi Desert). U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867 — Russia (Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/Amur river region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan (Hokkaido). U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896 — Alaska (Kodiak Island & nearby islands). U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853 — Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal. U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896 — SE Alaska (Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area). U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914 — W Canada (W British Columbia), and formerly W USA (W Washington and Oregon). U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828 — Middle East, from Turkey to Iran (extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Subspecies and Distribution. G. t. tigrina Schreber, 1776 — South Africa (Southern region of Western Cape to Fastern Cape Provinces). G. t. methi Roberts, 1948 — South Africa (S of Umzigaba River, Pondoland), and Lesotho. in Viverridae

Subspecies and Distribution. G. t. tigrina Schreber, 1776 — South Africa (Southern region of Western Cape to Fastern Cape Provinces). G. t. methi Roberts, 1948 — South Africa (S of Umzigaba River, Pondoland), and Lesotho.

Subspecies and Distribution. N. v. vison Schreber, 1776 — E Canada and NE USA (Allegheny Mts). N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916 — SW USA (California & W Nevada). N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964 — W Alaska. N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896 — W Canada and NW USA. N. v. evagor Hall, 1932 — SW Canada (Vancouver I). N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948 — SE USA (SW Florida). N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900 — most of Alaska and NW Canada (N Mackenzie & Yukon). N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902 — C Canada (Keewatin Region, Manitoba & Ontario). N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913 — Great Plains of USA. N. v. low Anderson, 1945 — E Canada (Labrador & Quebec). N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898 — USA (S Carolina to Florida). N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903 — Alaska (Kenai Peninsula). N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796 — SE USA. N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909 — SW Alaska. N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895 — USA (Arkansas & Louisiana). Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan (Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden. in Mustelidae

Subspecies and Distribution. N. v. vison Schreber, 1776 — E Canada and NE USA (Allegheny Mts). N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916 — SW USA (California & W Nevada). N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964 — W Alaska. N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896 — W Canada and NW USA. N. v. evagor Hall, 1932 — SW Canada (Vancouver I). N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948 — SE USA (SW Florida). N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900 — most of Alaska and NW Canada (N Mackenzie & Yukon). N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902 — C Canada (Keewatin Region, Manitoba & Ontario). N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913 — Great Plains of USA. N. v. low Anderson, 1945 — E Canada (Labrador & Quebec). N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898 — USA (S Carolina to Florida). N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903 — Alaska (Kenai Peninsula). N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796 — SE USA. N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909 — SW Alaska. N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895 — USA (Arkansas & Louisiana). Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan (Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.

Subspecies and Distribution. B. a. alleni Thomas, 1880 — South America, E of the Andes. B. a. medius Thomas, 1909 — Choc6 region of W Colombia, Ecuador, and NW Venezuela. B. a. orinomus Goldman, 1912 — E Panama. in Procyonidae

Subspecies and Distribution. B. a. alleni Thomas, 1880 — South America, E of the Andes. B. a. medius Thomas, 1909 — Choc6 region of W Colombia, Ecuador, and NW Venezuela. B. a. orinomus Goldman, 1912 — E Panama.

Subspecies and Distribution. T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778 — S Canada (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario & Saskatschewan) and NC USA. T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858 — N & C Mexico and SC USA (W of the Mississippi River). T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946 — NE USA (Great Lakes Region). T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825 — W USA (NW to California). in Mustelidae

Subspecies and Distribution. T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778 — S Canada (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario & Saskatschewan) and NC USA. T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858 — N & C Mexico and SC USA (W of the Mississippi River). T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946 — NE USA (Great Lakes Region). T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825 — W USA (NW to California).

Distribution. Endemic to the Palawan faunal region, including Palawan, Culion, Busuanga, and Calauit Is. Introduced to Apulit I. in Manidae

Distribution. Endemic to the Palawan faunal region, including Palawan, Culion, Busuanga, and Calauit Is. Introduced to Apulit I.

Subspecies and Distribution. E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct. E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea (Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia (Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somalia from the Meti and Erigavo in the N to Nugaal Valley and Shebelle River in the S. in Equidae

Subspecies and Distribution. E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct. E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea (Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia (Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somalia from the Meti and Erigavo in the N to Nugaal Valley and Shebelle River in the S.

Distribution. SE Senegal, extreme SW Mali, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, NW Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, S Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, extreme S Niger, W & C Nigeria, N Cameroon, S Chad, Central African Republic, S & E Sudan, N DR Congo, lowland parts of W Ethiopia, Uganda (not extreme S), NW Kenya (Lake Turkana region). in Bovidae

Distribution. SE Senegal, extreme SW Mali, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, NW Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, S Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, extreme S Niger, W & C Nigeria, N Cameroon, S Chad, Central African Republic, S & E Sudan, N DR Congo, lowland parts of W Ethiopia, Uganda (not extreme S), NW Kenya (Lake Turkana region).

Subspecies and Distribution. T. q. quadricornis de Blainville, 1816 — C & N Peninsular India. T: q. iodes Hodgson, 1847 — sub-Himalayan region in N India and S Nepal. 1. q. subquadricornis Gray, 1843 — SC & SW Peninsular India. in Bovidae

Subspecies and Distribution. T. q. quadricornis de Blainville, 1816 — C & N Peninsular India. T: q. iodes Hodgson, 1847 — sub-Himalayan region in N India and S Nepal. 1. q. subquadricornis Gray, 1843 — SC & SW Peninsular India.

Distribution. Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan. in Tragulidae

Distribution. Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan.

Distribution. Thailand and southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar. in Tragulidae

Distribution. Thailand and southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.

Subspecies and Distribution. S. s. scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 — W Europe, from Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Czech Republic to N Italy and N Iberian Peninsula; possibly also Albania. The taxonomic status of animals in Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia, and Slovakia is unclear but presumably these populations are included in scrofa, as are the populations of Sweden, Finland, and the Baltic states. However, restocking of once depleted populations, for example in Italy, has likely involved the introduction and mixing of this subspecies with other subspecies, such as attila. S. s. affinis Gray, 1847 — S India and Sri Lanka. S. s. algirus Loche, 1867 — Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, on the coastal side of the mountains or in the low montane areas. S. s. attila Thomas, 1912 — Hungary, Ukraine, C & S Belarus, Romania, Moldova, and S Russia towards the N flank of the Caucasus, but not including the Transcaucasian countries of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The range possibly extends as far S as the Mesopotamian Delta in Iraq, in which case it would likely include W & SW Iran, and possibly E Turkey and Syria, where it borders with lybicus. Such a range could not be easily reconciled with a statement by Groves that "the difference between pigs from N and S of the Caucasus is quite striking; Transcaucasian boars are certainly not attila." This subspecies may also extend into C Asia and include Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, but no data exist to support this. S. s. baeticus Thomas, 1912 — originally described from Coto Donana, S Spain, and later merged with meridionalis; also S Portugal. Unless evidence is found that these Italian and Iberian populations are the relics of a much larger formerly contiguous range, this subspecies should be kept as distinct. S. s. coreanus Heude, 1897 — Korean Peninsula. S. s. eristatus Wagner, 1839 — Himalayas S to C India and E to Indochina (N of the Kra Isthmus). S. s. davidi Groves, 1981 — the arid zone from E Iran to Gujarat, including Pakistan and NW India, and perhaps N to Tajikistan. S. s. leucomystax Temminck, 1842 — main Is ofJapan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Nakadori, Hiburijima, Tojima, Kushima, and other smaller Is). S. s. lybicus Gray, 1868 — Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, in the past also in Lybia, and Egypt. The former Yugoslavia was included in its range, which would suggest that now Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Kosovo are within the range of this subspecies, although the exact boundaries are unclear. Pigs from Albania have been assigned to S. s. scrofa. S. s. majori De Beaux & Festa, 1927 — C & S Italian Peninsula. S. s. menidionalis Forsyth Major, 1882 — Corsica and Sardinia, with the proviso that the two populations are very likely to be introduced or feral. S. s. moupinensis Milne-Edwards, 1871 — China, S to Vietnam and W to Sichuan. S. s. nigripes Blanford, 1875 — the flanks of the Tianshan mountains in Kyrgyzstan and NW China (Xinjiang). An animal photographed in NE Iran (Golestan) looked like this subspecies. S. s. nukiuanus Kuroda, 1924 — Iriomote, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Tokunoshima, Amamioshima, and Kakerome Is in the Ryukyu chain in extreme S Japan, though some of these populations have hybridized with introduced domesticates. S. s. sibiricus Staffe, 1922 — Mongolia and Transbaikal (S & E of Lake Baikal). S. s. tawvanus Swinhoe, 1863 — Taiwan. S. s. ussuricus Heude, 1888 — far E Russia and the Manchurian region (China). Korean populations were previously included in this subspecies, but based on new evidence, the Korean taxon seems more similar to moupinensis. S. s. vittatus Boie, 1828 — Malay Peninsula, S of the Isthmus of Kra, the offshore islands of Terutai and Langkawi, Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Java, Bali, and a range of smaller islands around these, including Babi, Bakong, Batam, Bawean, Bengkalis, Bintan, Bulan, Bunguran, Cuyo, Deli, Durian, Enggano, Galang, Jambongan, Karimon (Riau Is), Kundur, Lagong, Laut, Lingga, Lingung, Mapor, Moro Kecil, North Pagai, Nias, Panaitan, Payong, Penang, Pinie, Rupat, Siantan, Siberut, Simeulue, Singkep, Sugi, Sugi Bawa, Telibon, Tinggi, Tuangku, and the Tambelan Is. This species was originally present from the British Is in the extreme W, through Eurasia from S Scandinavia to S Siberia, extending as far E as Korea and Japan, and SE into some of the Sunda Is and Taiwan. In the S the species ranged along the Nile Valley to Khartoum, and N of the Sahara in Africa, more orless following the continental coasts of S, E, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongolia and in China W of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofa has changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17" century, from Denmark in the 19" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germany in the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmark and Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britain via escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofa stocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America. In all of these areas they are now generally recognized as a major pest. in Suidae

Subspecies and Distribution. S. s. scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 — W Europe, from Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Czech Republic to N Italy and N Iberian Peninsula; possibly also Albania. The taxonomic status of animals in Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia, and Slovakia is unclear but presumably these populations are included in scrofa, as are the populations of Sweden, Finland, and the Baltic states. However, restocking of once depleted populations, for example in Italy, has likely involved the introduction and mixing of this subspecies with other subspecies, such as attila. S. s. affinis Gray, 1847 — S India and Sri Lanka. S. s. algirus Loche, 1867 — Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, on the coastal side of the mountains or in the low montane areas. S. s. attila Thomas, 1912 — Hungary, Ukraine, C & S Belarus, Romania, Moldova, and S Russia towards the N flank of the Caucasus, but not including the Transcaucasian countries of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The range possibly extends as far S as the Mesopotamian Delta in Iraq, in which case it would likely include W & SW Iran, and possibly E Turkey and Syria, where it borders with lybicus. Such a range could not be easily reconciled with a statement by Groves that "the difference between pigs from N and S of the Caucasus is quite striking; Transcaucasian boars are certainly not attila." This subspecies may also extend into C Asia and include Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, but no data exist to support this. S. s. baeticus Thomas, 1912 — originally described from Coto Donana, S Spain, and later merged with meridionalis; also S Portugal. Unless evidence is found that these Italian and Iberian populations are the relics of a much larger formerly contiguous range, this subspecies should be kept as distinct. S. s. coreanus Heude, 1897 — Korean Peninsula. S. s. eristatus Wagner, 1839 — Himalayas S to C India and E to Indochina (N of the Kra Isthmus). S. s. davidi Groves, 1981 — the arid zone from E Iran to Gujarat, including Pakistan and NW India, and perhaps N to Tajikistan. S. s. leucomystax Temminck, 1842 — main Is ofJapan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Nakadori, Hiburijima, Tojima, Kushima, and other smaller Is). S. s. lybicus Gray, 1868 — Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, in the past also in Lybia, and Egypt. The former Yugoslavia was included in its range, which would suggest that now Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Kosovo are within the range of this subspecies, although the exact boundaries are unclear. Pigs from Albania have been assigned to S. s. scrofa. S. s. majori De Beaux & Festa, 1927 — C & S Italian Peninsula. S. s. menidionalis Forsyth Major, 1882 — Corsica and Sardinia, with the proviso that the two populations are very likely to be introduced or feral. S. s. moupinensis Milne-Edwards, 1871 — China, S to Vietnam and W to Sichuan. S. s. nigripes Blanford, 1875 — the flanks of the Tianshan mountains in Kyrgyzstan and NW China (Xinjiang). An animal photographed in NE Iran (Golestan) looked like this subspecies. S. s. nukiuanus Kuroda, 1924 — Iriomote, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Tokunoshima, Amamioshima, and Kakerome Is in the Ryukyu chain in extreme S Japan, though some of these populations have hybridized with introduced domesticates. S. s. sibiricus Staffe, 1922 — Mongolia and Transbaikal (S & E of Lake Baikal). S. s. tawvanus Swinhoe, 1863 — Taiwan. S. s. ussuricus Heude, 1888 — far E Russia and the Manchurian region (China). Korean populations were previously included in this subspecies, but based on new evidence, the Korean taxon seems more similar to moupinensis. S. s. vittatus Boie, 1828 — Malay Peninsula, S of the Isthmus of Kra, the offshore islands of Terutai and Langkawi, Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Java, Bali, and a range of smaller islands around these, including Babi, Bakong, Batam, Bawean, Bengkalis, Bintan, Bulan, Bunguran, Cuyo, Deli, Durian, Enggano, Galang, Jambongan, Karimon (Riau Is), Kundur, Lagong, Laut, Lingga, Lingung, Mapor, Moro Kecil, North Pagai, Nias, Panaitan, Payong, Penang, Pinie, Rupat, Siantan, Siberut, Simeulue, Singkep, Sugi, Sugi Bawa, Telibon, Tinggi, Tuangku, and the Tambelan Is. This species was originally present from the British Is in the extreme W, through Eurasia from S Scandinavia to S Siberia, extending as far E as Korea and Japan, and SE into some of the Sunda Is and Taiwan. In the S the species ranged along the Nile Valley to Khartoum, and N of the Sahara in Africa, more orless following the continental coasts of S, E, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongolia and in China W of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofa has changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17" century, from Denmark in the 19" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germany in the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmark and Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britain via escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofa stocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America. In all of these areas they are now generally recognized as a major pest.