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Figure 7. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 in Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene-earliest Oligocene tylopod Anoplotherium (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)

Figure 7. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 skeleton, ribs (IWCMS. 1999.128). A–C, left 4th? head. D–F, left 5th? head. G–I, left 8th or 9th? head. J, K, right 8th or 9th head. L, M, right shaft that may belong to right 8th or 9th? head. N, shaft of more posterior rib. Views are dorsal (A, D, G), anterior (B, E, H, J, L), posterior (C, F, I, K, M) and lateral (N). Coated with ammonium chloride. Scale bar = 50 mm.

Figure 2. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 in Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene-earliest Oligocene tylopod Anoplotherium (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)

Figure 2. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 skeleton, teeth and jaws (IWCMS. 1999.128). A, right M1. B, anterior part of palate with alveoli for canines, crowns of left P3−4 and right P1−3. C, right I1. D–F, right dentary fragment in two parts with P2–4, M1 and trigonid of M3. Views are crown (A, B, E), lingual (C, F) and buccal (D). Coated with ammonium chloride. Scale bar = 50 mm.

Figure 10. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 in Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene-earliest Oligocene tylopod Anoplotherium (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)

Figure 10. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 skeleton, humeri and radii. A–E, left humerus lacking proximal end (SMNS.42098). F, right humerus, proximal epiphysis (IWCMS. 1999.128). G, right proximal radius (IWCMS. 1999.128). H, left proximal radius (SMNS.41960a). Views are anterior (A), lateral (B, F), medial (C), posterior (D), distal (E) and proximal (G, H). Coated with ammonium chloride. Scale bar = 50 mm.

Figure 6. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 in Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene-earliest Oligocene tylopod Anoplotherium (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)

Figure 6. Anoplotherium latipes. Ham 3 skeleton, lumbar and caudal vertebrae (IWCMS. 1999.128). A–D, L2?. E–H, L4?. I, posterior caudal. J, L, posterior lumbar. K, M–P, anterior caudal. Views are anterior (A, E, M), posterior (B, F, J, N), dorsal (C, G, I, O), left lateral (D, H, P) and right lateral reversed (L.). Coated with ammonium chloride. Scale bar = 50 mm.

Figure 1. Anoplotherium latipes. A–D, Ham 3 in Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene-earliest Oligocene tylopod Anoplotherium (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)

Figure 1. Anoplotherium latipes. A–D, Ham 3 skeleton, log bed, lower Hamstead Member, Bouldnor Formation, Bouldnor, Isle of Wight, UK (IWCMS. 1999.128). Bones showing tooth puncture marks, indicated by arrows. A, manual right first phalanx IV, distal end in dorsal view. B, anterior thoracic vertebra (3?) in left lateral view. C and D, mediodistal portion of left ischium in dorsal (C) and ventral (D) views. E–G, lectotype left metatarsal II, Late Eocene lignites, La Débruge, Vaucluse, France (BMNH.30600b) in anterior (E), posterior (F) and lateral (G) views. Coated with ammonium chloride. Scale bar = 50 mm.

opencc-by-4.0Apr 2018View details →

Review of Recent Trends in Measuring the Computing Systems Intelligence-Figure 4. Intelligent robots (accessed 01.11.2017). 4.1. Erica, a humanoid robot (https://www.tech-review.com/erica-is-the-latest-japanese-robot-with-human-appearance.html). 4.2. Atlas, a bipedal humanoid robot developed by Boston Dynamics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(robot))

One of the most highly quoted and interesting definitions of machine intelligence was presented by Alan Turing (1950). Turing considered a computing system intelligent if a human assessor could not decide the nature of the system (being human or artificial) based on questions asked from a room hidden from a human assessor. Until recently there were performed different discussions and comments on the Turing test. Hernández-Orallo (2000) presents an interesting study related to the Turing Test. Dowe and Hajek, (1998) propose a computational extension of the Turing Test. The design and development of intelligent systems are historically very recent. But, even if the advance of hardware and software is very fast, it will take a longer time until the artificial computing systems will attain a similar intelligence with the humans. Based on this fact, we consider that is not appropriate to formulate the problem of the direct comparison at a general level of human intelligence with the machine intelligence. Different definitions were proposed for the intelligence of the agents (Russell, & Norvig, 2003; Iantovics, & Zamfirescu, 2013). Many authors (Russell, & Norvig, 2003; Iantovics, 2005) argue that the intelligence of the agents cannot be defined universally. The impossibility to give a universal definition to the human intelligence is based mostly on the enormous complexity of the human brain and complexity of the human thinking and decision making. Similarly, we may consider the impossibility of universal definition of intelligence of the agents based on the very large variety (by type and complexity) of intelligent agents. The machine intelligence frequently is defined based on different abilities such as (Iantovics, 2005; Sharkey, 2006): autonomous learning, self-adaptation, and evolution. These principles of considering the intelligence are inspired by biological life forms able to learn autonomously during their life cycle, to adapt to the environment and to evolve during more generations. We would like to outline that not all the designed agents are intelligent. There is not a required property of an agent to be intelligent.

Fig. 4 in An unusual trackway of a possibly bipedal archosaur from the Late Triassic of the Sichuan Basin, China

Fig. 4. Photographs (A 1 –R 1) and outline drawings (A 2 –R 2) of the Late Triassic Fushun archosaur tracks FS-1 to FS-19. All tracks are oriented in walking direction (upwards). Note that the two tracks FS-10 and FS-11 are connected to each other, interpreted as the left foot sliding backwards into the previously left impression of the right foot.

Fig. 1 in An unusual trackway of a possibly bipedal archosaur from the Late Triassic of the Sichuan Basin, China

Fig. 1. Geographical (A) and geological (B) setting of the Fushun tracksite (indicated by the footprint icon) within the Sichuan Province, China. Abbreviations: T, Triassic; T1, Lower Triassic; T2, Middle Triassic; T3, Upper Triassic; J1, Lower Jurassic; J2, Middle Jurassic; J3,Upper Jurassic; K1, Lower Cretaceous; K2, Upper Cretaceous; E, Paleogene; OS, Ordovician and Silurian; Є, Cambrian.

Fig. 2 in An unusual trackway of a possibly bipedal archosaur from the Late Triassic of the Sichuan Basin, China

Fig. 2. Stratigraphical setting of the Fushun tracksite. Abbreviations: J1, Lower Jurassic; T3, Upper Triassic; T2, Middle Triassic.

Fig. 3. A in An unusual trackway of a possibly bipedal archosaur from the Late Triassic of the Sichuan Basin, China

Fig. 3. A. Overview of the Late Triassic Fushun archosaur trackway. Stitched photograph (A 1), interpretative outline drawing (A 2), pace lines connecting the reference points (intersection of long and wide axes) of each track (A 3). Note that the reference point of FS-11 is ambiguous, because the foot was possibly sliding backwards into FS-10. B. Eosauropus trackway from the Utah West tracksite (Lockley et al. 2011: fig. 6). C. Eosauropus trackway from the Knowles Canyon tracksite (Lockley et al. 2011: fig. 6).

Fig. 6 in An unusual trackway of a possibly bipedal archosaur from the Late Triassic of the Sichuan Basin, China

Fig. 6. Comparison of the Fushun archosaur trackway with Pseudotetrasauropus, Otozoum, and Eosauropus. A. Outline drawing of the right pes FS-12 of the Fushun trackway. B. Pseudotetrasauropus bipedoida Ellenberger, 1972 (modified from D'Orazi Porchetti and Nicosia 2007: fig. 9). C. Otozoum moodii Rainforth, 2003 (mirrored and modified from Rainforth 2003: fig. 3C). D. Eosauropus cimarronensis Lockley, Lucas, and Hunt, 2006 (Lockley et al. 2006a: fig. 4A). In B 2, C 2 the gray-scale sketches show the connected outer edges; the black bars the length of the four digits. The digits of P. bipedoida are well separated while those of O. moodii are relatively compact. However, during foot withdrawal out of deep substrate, both could result in the anterior, elongated grooves as observed in FS-12, and these could correspond to digits III and IV.

Fig. 5 in An unusual trackway of a possibly bipedal archosaur from the Late Triassic of the Sichuan Basin, China

Fig. 5. Close-up photographs highlighting characteristic the Late Triassic Fushun archosaur track features. A. Photograph (A 1) and outline drawing A 2) of FS-5 exhibiting a large impression at the rear of the track, which is inclined towards the deepest part of the track, and a two elongated grooves in the anterior part of the track. The impression at the rear of the track is interpreted as being related to the foot sliding on the substrate into its final position, and the two elongated anterior grooves as toe and claw drag marks after foot withdrawal. B. Low-angle light photograph of FS-5 and FS-6. Note the two elongated grooves in the anterior part of FS-5, interpreted as toe and claw drag marks. C. Straight and washed out grooves between FS-6 and FS-7, and FS-7 and FS-8, interpreted as erosional dissolution features around roots and/or of draining water. Arrows indicate walking direction.

opencc-zeroApr 2023View details →

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Data for: Mobility of the human foot's medial arch helps enables upright bipedal locomotion

Developing the ability to habitually walk and run upright on two feet is one of the most significant transformations to have occurred in human evolution. Many musculoskeletal adaptations enabled bipedal locomotion, including dramatic structural changes to the foot and, in particular, the evolution of an elevated medial arch. The foot's arched structure has previously been assumed to play a central role in directly propelling the center of mass forward and upward through leverage about the toes and a spring-like energy recoil. However, it is unclear whether or how the plantarflexion mobility and height of the medial arch support its propulsive lever function. Here we show, using high-speed biplanar x-ray, that regardless of intraspecific differences in medial arch height, arch recoil enables a longer contact time and favorable propulsive conditions at the ankle for walking upright on an extended leg. This mechanism may have helped drive the evolution of the longitudinal arch after our last common ancestor with chimpanzees, who lack this plantarflexion mobility during push-off. We discovered that the generally overlooked navicular-medial cuneiform joint is primarily responsible for arch recoil in human arches, suggesting that future morphological investigations of this joint will provide new interpretations of the fossil record. Our work further suggests that enabling longitudinal arch recoil in footwear and surgical interventions may be critical for maintaining the ankle's natural propulsive ability.

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Data for: Mobility of the human foot's medial arch helps enables upright bipedal locomotion

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publicApr 2023View details →

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Data from: Standing giants: A digital biomechanical model for bipedal postures in sauropod dinosaurs

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publicJul 2025View details →

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Laetoli footprints reveal bipedal gait biomechanics different from those of modern humans and chimpanzees

Bipedalism is a key adaptation that shaped human evolution, yet the timing and nature of its evolution remain unclear. Here we use new experimentally based approaches to investigate the locomotor mechanics preserved by the famous Pliocene hominin footprints from Laetoli, Tanzania. We conducted footprint formation experiments with habitually barefoot humans and with chimpanzees to quantitatively compare their footprints to those preserved at Laetoli. Our results show that the Laetoli footprints are morphologically distinct from those of both chimpanzees and habitually barefoot modern humans. By analysing biomechanical data that were collected during the human experiments we, for the first time, directly link differences between the Laetoli and modern human footprints to specific biomechanical variables. We find that the Laetoli hominin probably used a more flexed limb posture at foot strike than modern humans when walking bipedally. The Laetoli footprints provide a clear snapshot of an early hominin bipedal gait that probably involved a limb posture that was slightly but significantly different from our own, and these data support the hypothesis that important evolutionary changes to hominin bipedalism occurred within the past 3.66 Myr.

opencc-zeroDec 2019View details →

Osteology of the late Triassic bipedal archosaur Poposaurus gracilis (Archosauria: Pseudosuchia) from Western North America

Poposaurus gracilis is a bipedal pseudosuchian archosaur that has been poorly understood since the discovery of the holotype fragmentary partial postcranial skeleton in 1915. Poposaurus. gracilis is a member of Poposauroidea, an unusually morphologically divergent clade of pseudosuchians containing taxa that are bipedal, quadrupedal, toothed, edentulous, and some individuals with elongated thoracic neural spines (i.e., sails). In 2003, a well preserved, fully articulated, and nearly complete postcranial skeleton of P. gracilis was discovered with some fragmentary cranial elements from the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation of Grand Staircase‐Escalante National Monument of southern Utah, USA. The aim of this work is to describe the osteology of this specimen in detail and compare P. gracilis to other closely related pseudosuchian archosaurs. The open neurocentral sutures throughout the majority of the vertebral column, the small size of this individual, and the presence of seven evenly spaced cyclic growth marks in the histologically sectioned femur indicate that this specimen was a skeletally immature juvenile, or subadult when it died. The pes of P. gracilis contains multiple skeletal adaptations and osteological correlates for soft tissue structures that support a hypothesis of digitigrady for this taxon. When coupled with the numerous postcranial characters associated with cursoriality, and the many anatomical traits convergent with theropod dinosaurs, this animal likely occupied a similar ecological niche with contemporaneous theropods during the Late Triassic Period.

ClinicalTrials.gov32/100

Bipedal vs. Unipedal Exercises in Chronic Ankle Instability

ClinicalTrials.gov study NCT06244511. IPD Sharing: Not stated. Countries: 1. Publications: 10.

restrictedIPD-UNDECIDEDFeb 2026View details →

publicMar 2019View details →

Data from: Robotic investigation on effect of stretch reflex and crossed inhibitory response on bipedal hopping

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