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177 results for “ecological interactions”
Fig. 3 in Ecological interactions between arthropods and small vertebrates in a lowland Amazon rainforest
Fig. 3. (A) A theraphosid spider, cf. Pamphobeteus sp. (Theraphosidae), preying upon Hamptophryne boliviana; (B) a ctenid spider (Ctenidae) preying upon Leptodactylus didymus. Photos by Emanuele Biggi (A) and Pascal Title (C).
Fig. 2 in Ecological interactions between arthropods and small vertebrates in a lowland Amazon rainforest
Fig. 2. (A) The fishing spider Thaumasia sp. (Pisauridae) preying upon a tadpole (unidentified) at a temporary pond located in terra firme forest; (B) a ctenid spider (genus undetermined; Ctenidae) preying upon a subadult Boana sp. G. Photos by Emanuele Biggi (A) and Francesco Tomasinelli (B).
Data from: The importance of biotic interactions in distribution models of wild bees depends on the type of ecological relations, spatial scale and range
<p>Studies have found that biotic information can play an important role in shaping the distribution of species even at large scales. However, results from species distribution models are not always consistent among studies, and the underlying factors that influence the importance of biotic information to distribution models, are unclear. 2. We studied wild bees and plants, and cleptoparasite bees and their hosts in the Netherlands to evaluate how the inclusion of their biotic interactions affects the performance of species distribution models. We assessed model performance through spatial block cross-validation and by comparing models with interactions to models where the interacting species were randomized. Finally, we evaluated how, (i) spatial resolution, (ii) taxonomic rank (genus or species), (iii) degree of specialization, (iv) distribution of the biotic factor, (v) bee body size and (vi) type of biotic interaction, affect the importance of biotic interactions in shaping the distribution of wild bee species using generalized linear models. 3. We found that the models of wild bees improved when the biotic factor was included. The model performance improved the most for parasitic bees. Spatial resolution, taxonomic rank, distribution range of the biotic factor, and degree of specialization of the modelled species all influenced the importance of the biotic interaction to the models. 4. We encourage researchers to include biotic interactions in species distribution models, especially for specialized species and when the biotic factor has a limited distribution range. However, before adding the biotic factor we suggest considering different spatial resolutions and taxonomic ranks of the biotic factor. We recommend using single species or genus data as a biotic factor in the models of specialist species and for the generalist species, we recommend using an approximate measure of interactions, such as flower richness.</p>
Ecological interactions driving population dynamics of two tick-borne pathogens, Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti
<p><em>Borrelia</em> <em>burgdorferi</em> (<em>Bb</em>) and <em>Babesia</em> <em>microti</em> (<em>Bm</em>) are vector-borne zoonotic pathogens commonly found co-circulating in <em>Ixodes</em> <em>scapularis</em> and <em>Peromyscus</em> <em>leucopus</em> populations. The restricted distribution and lower prevalence of <em>Bm</em> has been historically attributed to lower host-to-tick transmission efficiency and limited host ranges. We hypothesized that prevalence patterns are driven by coinfection dynamics and vertical transmission. We use a multi-year, multiple-location, longitudinal dataset with mathematical modelling to elucidate coinfection dynamics between <em>Bb</em> and <em>Bm</em> in natural populations of <em>P. leucopus</em>, the most competent reservoir host for both pathogens in the eastern USA. Our analysis indicates that, in the absence of vertical transmission, <em>Bb</em> is viable at lower tick numbers than <em>Bm</em>. However, with vertical transmission, Bm is viable at lower tick numbers than <em>Bb</em>. Vertical transmission has a particularly strong effect on <em>Bm</em> prevalence early in the active season while coinfection has an increasing role during the nymphal peak. Our analyses indicate that coinfection processes, such as facilitation of <em>Bm</em> infection by <em>Bb</em>, have relatively little influence on the persistence of either parasite. We suggest future work examines the sensitivity of <em>Bm</em> vertical transmission and other key processes to local environmental conditions to inform surveillance and control of tick-borne pathogens.</p>
Implementing social network analysis to understand the socio-ecology of wildlife co-occurrence and joint interactions with humans in anthropogenic environments
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Ecological interactions driving population dynamics of two tick-borne pathogens, Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti
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Data from: Herbicidal interference: Glyphosate drives both the ecology and evolution of plant-herbivore interactions
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Data from: The importance of biotic interactions in distribution models of wild bees depends on the type of ecological relations, spatial scale and range
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Non-trophic interactions amplify kelp harvest-induced biomass oscillations and biomass changes in a kelp forest ecological network model
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Data from: Heterospecific mating interactions as an interface between ecology and evolution
<p>Reproductive interference (costly interspecific sexual interactions) are well-understood to promote divergence in mating-relevant traits (i.e. reproductive character displacement: RCD), but it can also reduce population growth, eventually leading to local extinction of one of the species. The ecological and evolutionary processes driven by reproductive interference can interact with each other. These interactions are likely to influence whether the outcome is co-existence or extinction, but remain little studied. In this paper, we first develop an eco-evolutionary perspective on reproductive interference by integrating ecological and evolutionary processes in a common framework. We also present a simple model to demonstrate the eco-evolutionary dynamics of reproductive interference. We then identify a number of factors that are likely to influence the relative likelihoods of extinction or RCD. We discuss particularly relevant factors by classifying them into four categories: the nature of the traits responding to selection, the mechanisms determining the expression of these traits, mechanisms of reproductive interference, and the ecological background. We highlight previously underappreciated ways in which these factors may influence the relative likelihoods of RCD and local extinction. By doing so, we also identify questions and future directions that will increase our holistic understanding of the outcomes of reproductive interference.</p>
Data from: Precipitation alters interactions in a grassland ecological community
Climate change is transforming precipitation regimes world-wide. Changes in precipitation regimes are known to have powerful effects on plant productivity, but the consequences of these shifts for the dynamics of ecological communities are poorly understood. This knowledge gap hinders our ability to anticipate and mitigate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. Precipitation may affect fauna through direct effects on physiology, behaviour or demography, through plant-mediated indirect effects, or by modifying interactions among species. In this paper, we examined the response of a semi-arid ecological community to a fivefold change in precipitation over 7 years. We examined the effects of precipitation on the dynamics of a grassland ecosystem in central California from 2007 to 2013. We conducted vegetation surveys, pitfall trapping of invertebrates, visual surveys of lizards and capture–mark–recapture surveys of rodents on 30 plots each year. We used structural equation modelling to evaluate the direct, indirect and modifying effects of precipitation on plants, ants, beetles, orthopterans, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels and lizards. We found pervasive effects of precipitation on the ecological community. Although precipitation increased plant biomass, direct effects on fauna were often stronger than plant-mediated effects. In addition, precipitation altered the sign or strength of consumer-resource and facilitative interactions among the faunal community such that negative or neutral interactions became positive or vice versa with increasing precipitation. These findings indicate that precipitation influences ecological communities in multiple ways beyond its recognized effects on primary productivity. Stochastic variation in precipitation may weaken the average strength of biotic interactions over time, thereby increasing ecosystem stability and resilience to climate change.
Ecological mechanisms explaining interactions within plant-hummingbird networks: morphological matching increases towards lower latitudes
<p><a name="ab4">Interactions between species are influenced by different ecological mechanisms, such as morphological matching, phenological overlap, and species abundances</a>. <a name="Ab1"></a><a name="ab5">How</a> these mechanisms explain interaction frequencies across environmental gradients remains poorly understood. Consequently, we also know little about the mechanisms that drive the geographical patterns in network structure, such as complementary specialization and modularity. Here, we use data on morphologies, phenologies and abundances to explain interaction frequencies between hummingbirds and plants at a large geographic scale. <a name="ab2">For 24 quantitative networks sampled throughout the Americas, we found that</a> the tendency of species to interact with morphologically matching partners contributed to specialized and modular network structures. Morphological matching best explained interaction frequencies in networks found closer to the equator and in areas with low temperature seasonality. When comparing the three ecological mechanisms within networks, we found that both morphological matching and phenological overlap generally outperformed abundances in the explanation of interaction frequencies. Together, these findings provide insights into the ecological mechanisms that underlie geographical patterns in resource specialization. Notably, our results highlight morphological constraints on interactions as a potential explanation for increasing resource specialization towards lower latitudes.</p>
Data from: Boreal tree growth exhibits decadal-scale ecological memory to drought and insect defoliation, but no negative response to their interaction
1. Interactions between drought and insect defoliation may dramatically alter forest function under novel climate and disturbance regimes, but remain poorly understood. We empirically tested two important hypotheses regarding tree responses to drought and insect defoliation: 1) trees exhibit delayed, persistent, and cumulative growth responses to these stressors; 2) physiological feedbacks in tree responses to these stressors exacerbate their impacts on tree growth. These hypotheses remain largely untested at a landscape scale, yet are critical for predicting forest function under novel future conditions given the connection between tree growth and demographic processes such as mortality and regeneration. 2. We developed a Bayesian hierarchical model to quantify the ecological memory of tree growth to past water deficits and insect defoliation events, derive antecedent variables reflecting the persistent and cumulative effects of these stressors on current growth, and test for their interactive effects. The model was applied to extensive tree growth, weather, and defoliation survey data from western and eastern regions of the Canadian boreal forest impacted by recent drought and defoliation events and characterized by contrasting tree compositions, climates, and insect defoliators. 3. Results revealed persistent negative tree growth responses to past water (all trees) and defoliation (host trees) stress lasting 3-6 and 10-12 years, respectively, depending on study region. Accounting for the ecological memory of tree growth to water and defoliation stress allowed for detection of interactions not previously demonstrated. Contrary to expectations, we found evidence for positive interactions among non-host trees likely due to reduced water stress following defoliation events. Regional differences in ecological memory to water stress highlight the role of climate in shaping forest responses to drought. 4. Synthesis. Study results suggest negative feedbacks in tree responses to drought and insect attack may be weaker than predicted for defoliator-dominated boreal forest systems. Instead, insect defoliation may offset the impacts of water deficit on boreal tree growth by reducing transpirational water demand. This offset mimics increased resistance to drought following forest thinning and may lessen growth and mortality losses due to increased aridity and more severe insect damage forecast for the boreal forest under global change.
Understanding trophic interactions in a warming world by bridging foraging ecology and biomechanics with network science
<p><strong><em><span>Background</span></em></strong></p> <p><span>Leaf-cutter ants (<em>Atta</em> spp. and <em>Acromyrmex </em>spp.) are the principal insect pest and a major ecosystem engineer throughout the Neotropics (Leal et al., 2014; Wirth et al., 2003). They harvest plant matter in the surroundings of their colonies to grow a fungus as crop, and in doing so they cut plant matter on an almost industrial scale: about 15 % of the foliar biomass in the Neotropics, or about every sixth leaf, is consumed by leaf-cutter ant colonies (Costa et al., 2008; Fowler et al., 1989; Herz et al., 2007; Wirth et al., 2003), and more than half of all woody species are attacked by them (Cherrett, 1968; Rockwood, 1976). Leaf-cutter ants are perhaps the most voracious and polyphagous herbivorous insects (Lugo et al., 1973; Wirth et al., 2003), and their foraging activity is affected by a variety of environmental conditions, including wind (Alma et al., 2016b), precipitation (Steadman et al., 2020) and barometric pressure (Sujimoto et al., 2020), all of which will be subject to variation due to climate change. </span></p> <p><span>Although leaf-cutter foraging is clearly a complex, multi-factorial behaviour, it has at its core a biomechanical interaction between ant consumer and plant food resource: the force the ants can apply must exceed the force required to drag the mandible through the tissue (Püffel, Roces, et al., 2023; Püffel, Walthaus, et al., 2023). The magnitude of the available bite force is determined by worker size, and the magnitude of the minimum required cutting force is determined by structural and mechanical properties of the plant leaf; consumer and resource properties interact. This mechanical competition has resulted in extraordinary adaptations in both the anatomy and physiology of the leaf-cutter ant bite apparatus: their disproportionately large heads are filled to the rim with optimally packed mandible closer muscles (Püffel et al., 2021). Both their muscle stress and size-specific bite forces are among the highest measured for any animal (Püffel, Johnston, et al., 2023; Püffel, Roces, et al., 2023), and their mandibles are close to “ideally sharp” (Püffel, Walthaus, et al., 2023). As a result, the vast majority of worker sizes can cut the majority of tropical leafs; without these adaptations, and a bite performance commensurate with their body size, only the largest workers would be able to perform this crucial mechanical task (Püffel, Roces, et al., 2023). How will a warming climate affect resource accessibility for the leaf-cutters?</span></p> <p><span>Temperature increases have various implications for the trophic interactions of ants, including altered search behaviour <span>(Frizzi, 2018),</span> and foraging site selection (Spicer et al., 2017; Traniello et al., 1984). An increase in average temperatures can also drive body size decreases in insects (Tseng et al., 2018), including ants (Molet et al., 2017)<a href="https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?broken=QmLD4C"><span>,</span></a> concomitantly reducing their available bite force (Püffel, Roces, et al., 2023; Rühr et al., 2022). Since leaf-cutter mandibles are so sharp that they already cut with a force close to the minimum dictated by cutting mechanics, the force required to cut leaves will likely be unaffected (Püffel, Walthaus, et al., 2023), and any change in body size will therefore only significantly impact bite forces. Because the relationship between bite forces and body size in the leaf-cutter is well understood mechanistically (Püffel, Roces, et al., 2023), it is possible to predict how these changes will impact trophic networks. A very rough estimate of the change in network structure serves to illustrate how network science can integrate biomechanics and foraging ecology to study the effect of climate change on trophic interactions. </span></p> <p><span>To demonstrate the potential of network science to integrate biomechanical and foraging data within the context of climate change, we constructed and analysed hypothetical plant-ant networks across six hypothetical temperatures. </span></p> <p> </p> <p><strong><em><span>Datasets and methods</span></em></strong></p> <p><span>All analysis was performed in R version 4.3.1 (R Core Team, 2023), and data processed reproducibly via the ‘tidyverse’ package (Wickham et al., 2019). We compiled two datasets and some additional contextual information. Leaf-cutter ant biomass (a proxy for body size) and bite force data were taken from <span>Püffel et al. (2023)</span> for 248 individual ants across three colonies. Required cutting forces for 1197 individual plants representing 868 taxa available to leaf-cutter ants were taken from <span>Onoda et al. (2011)</span>. Insect temperature-body size relationships were taken from <span>Tseng et al. (2018)</span>; specifically, a body size decrease of 1.56 % per degree Celsius increase for museum specimens, to represent gradual long-term change. Based on these data, edgelists (i.e., pairwise lists of consumers and resources) were generated for ants and plants in which binary interaction weights were applied; where bite forces exceeded the force required to cut leaves, a weighting of 1 was given, and 0 otherwise. This edgelist was then replicated for incremental increases of 1 °C up to a 5 °C increase by adjusting bite forces based on incremental body size decreases of 1.56 %. In order to estimate the change of bite force with body mass, we used direct bite force measurements from Püffel et al. (2023), which suggest that maximum bite force in <em>Atta vollenweideri</em> varies with body mass <em>m</em> as <em>T ~ m^0.9</em>. Thus, if body size decreases by a factor of 0.9844 (i.e., 1.56 % decrease) with every degree Celsius temperature increase, then the maximum bite force decreases by a factor of 0.9844<em><sup>0.9</sup></em>. Consequently, adjusted bite forces were calculated, and new binary edgelist weightings generated based on whether the adjusted bite force was greater than the required cutting force.</span></p> <p><span>Bipartite networks were constructed with consumer nodes and resource nodes representing the three ant colonies and the 868 plant taxa, respectively. All six networks were visualised using ‘ggnetwork’ (Briatte, 2021) via ‘igraph’ (Csardi & Nepusz, 2006) in a single network diagram to highlight persistence of links across temperatures using scaled red colours. Network metrics, specifically consumer degree (the number of plants ants were deemed able to interact with) and generality (the total range of plants accessible across all ants), were generated via the ‘bipartite’ package (Dormann et al., 2008) and visually compared via ‘ggplot2’ (Wickham, 2016).</span></p>
Data and Code for "Urban socioeconomic variation influences the ecology and evolution of trophic interactions"
<p>Data and code required for all analyses in <em>Urban socioeconomic variation influences the ecology and evolution of trophic interactions</em>. </p> <p><a href="../api/files/5ca97a29-9947-482a-9095-5a54c40c57f0/Gall_Data_2022_new.csv">Gall_Data_2022_new.csv</a> contains data for gall predation and diameter measurements. <a href="../api/files/5ca97a29-9947-482a-9095-5a54c40c57f0/Goldrod_Gall_Density.csv">Goldrod_Gall_Density.csv</a> contains goldenrod and gall density measurements for each site. <a href="../api/files/5ca97a29-9947-482a-9095-5a54c40c57f0/GallSitesFinal.csv">GallSitesFinal.csv</a> contains location data for all study sites. <a href="../api/files/5ca97a29-9947-482a-9095-5a54c40c57f0/DisseminationAreaCodes.csv">DisseminationAreaCodes.csv</a> contains codes for each site location needed to obtain census data. Full descriptions of data are included in <a href="../api/records/10702694/draft/files/README.txt/content" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">README.txt</a></p> <p>The script <a href="../api/records/10640975/draft/files/DataCleaning.R/content" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">DataCleaning.R</a> assembles the above four datasets with environmental and census data to produce the final dataset: <a href="../api/files/5ca97a29-9947-482a-9095-5a54c40c57f0/MartinElGalmady%26Johnson2023_cleandataset.csv">MartinElGalmady&Johnson2023_cleandataset.csv</a> and the supplemental dataset with galls with early larval death removed: <a href="../api/records/10640975/draft/files/NoELD_dataset.csv/content" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NoELD_dataset.csv</a></p> <p><a href="../api/records/10640975/draft/files/Analysis.R/content" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Analysis.R</a> provides the code for conducting analyses and producing figures using the <a href="../api/files/5ca97a29-9947-482a-9095-5a54c40c57f0/MartinElGalmady%26Johnson2023_cleandataset.csv">MartinElGalmady&Johnson2023_cleandataset.csv</a> dataset (or the <a href="../api/records/10640975/draft/files/NoELD_dataset.csv/content" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NoELD_dataset.csv</a> for supplemental analyses with early larval death removed).</p> <p>Detailed descriptions of the final dataset are included in <a href="../api/records/10702694/draft/files/cleandataset_metadata.csv/content" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cleandataset_metadata.csv</a> (NoELD_dataset has the same rows and columns as the full dataset). </p> <p>All code was run in R verison 4.2.2</p>
Environmental variation and biotic interactions limit adaptation at ecological margins: lessons from rainforest Drosophila and European butterflies
<p>Models of local adaptation to spatially varying selection predict that maximum rates of evolution are determined by the interaction between increased adaptive potential owing to increased genetic variation, and the cost genetic variation brings by reducing population fitness. We discuss existing and new results from our laboratory assays and field transplants of rainforest Drosophila and UK butterflies along environmental gradients, which try to test these predictions in natural populations. Our data suggest that: (i) local adaptation along ecological gradients is not consistently observed in time and space, especially where biotic and abiotic interactions affect both gradient steepness and genetic variation in fitness; (ii) genetic variation in fitness observed in the laboratory is only sometimes visible to selection in the field, suggesting that demographic costs can remain high without increasing adaptive potential; and (iii) antagonistic interactions between species reduce local productivity, especially at ecological margins. Such antagonistic interactions steepen gradients and may increase the cost of adaptation by increasing its dimensionality. However, where biotic interactions do evolve, rapid range expansion can follow. Future research should test how the environmental sensitivity of genotypes determines their ecological exposure, and its effects on genetic variation in fitness, to predict the probability of evolutionary rescue at ecological margins. This article is part of the theme issue 'Species' ranges in the face of changing environments (Part II)'.</p>
An innovative approach combining metabarcoding and ecological interaction networks for selecting candidate biological control agents
<p>Classical biological control (CBC) can be used to decrease the density of invasive species to below an acceptable ecological and economic threshold. Natural enemies specific to the invasive species are selected from its native range and released into the invaded range. This approach has drawbacks, despite the performance of specificity tests to ensure its safety, because the fundamental host range defined under controlled conditions does not represent the actual host range <em>in natura, </em>and these tests omit indirect interactions within community.</p> <p>We focus on <em>Sonchus oleraceus</em> (Asteraceae), a weed species originating from Western Palearctic that is invasive in many countries and notably in Australia. We explore how analyses of interaction network within its native range can be used to 1) inventory herbivores associated to the target plant, 2) characterize their ecological host ranges, and 3) guide the selection of candidate biocontrol agents considering interactions with species from higher trophic levels. Arthropods were collected from plant community sympatric to <em>S. oleraceus</em>, in three bioclimatic regions, and interactions were inferred by a combination of molecular and morphological approaches.</p> <p>The networks reconstructed were structured in several trophic levels from basal species (plant community), to intermediate and top species (herbivorous arthropods and their natural enemies). The subnetwork centered on <em>S. oleraceus</em> related interactions contained 116 taxa and 213 interactions. We identified 47 herbivores feeding on <em>S. oleraceus</em>, 15 of which were specific to the target species. Some discrepancies with respect to published findings or conventional specificity tests suggested possible insufficient sampling effort for the recording of interactions or the existence of cryptic species. Among potential candidate agents, 6 exhibited interactions with natural enemies.</p> <p>Synthesis and applications: Adopting a network approach as prerequisite step of the classical biological control program can provide a rapid screening of potential agents to be tested in priority. Once ecological host range defined, we suggest that priority should be given to agent used by a minimum species, and, when they exist, to agents that possess enemies from the most distant taxonomical group from those occurring in the range of introduction.</p>
Synthetic microbial consortia with programmable ecological interactions
<p>1. Central to the composition, structure and function of any microbial community is the complex species interaction web. But understanding the overwhelming complexity of ecological interaction webs has been challenging, owing at least partly to the lack of efficient tools for disentangling species interactions in natural or artificial microbial communities.</p> <p>2. In this study, we developed a microbial experimental system which allows for rapidly generating microbial consortia with programmable ecological interactions. We engineered the model organism Escherichia coli to construct metabolism- and quorum sensing-based modules. The two engineered modules were used to create synthetic microbial consortia of synergy, competition and exploitation.</p> <p>3. We showed that each of synthetic microbial consortia displayed the unique mode of population dynamics under certain initial inoculation conditions. We also demonstrated that the transitions between exploitation and the types of competition or synergy based on the same paired strains were plausible by tuning the two engineered modules. We lastly derived mathematical models to quantitatively capture the experimentally observed population dynamics of these synthetic microbial consortia.</p> <p>4. This approach offers a fresh angle to engineering microbial systems for experimentally testing ecological questions with a much greater control and manipulation.</p>
Data for: Evolutionary interactions between thermal ecology and sexual selection
<p>Thermal ecology and mate competition are both pervasive features of ecological adaptation. A surge of recent work has uncovered the diversity of ways in which temperature affects mating interactions and sexual selection. However, the potential for thermal biology and reproductive ecology to evolve together as organisms adapt to their thermal environment has been underappreciated. Here, we develop a series of hypotheses regarding (1) not only how thermal ecology affects mating system dynamics, but also how mating dynamics can generate selection on thermal traits; and (2) how the thermal consequences of mate competition favor the reciprocal co-adaptation of thermal biology and sexual traits. We discuss our hypotheses in the context of both pre-copulatory and post-copulatory processes. We also call for future work integrating experimental and phylogenetic comparative approaches to understand evolutionary feedbacks between thermal ecology and sexual selection. Overall, studying reciprocal feedbacks between thermal ecology and sexual selection may be necessary to understand how organisms have adapted to the environments of the past and could persist in the environments of the future.</p>
Raw data for: Novel food resources and conservation of ecological interactions between the Andean Araucaria and the Austral parakeet
<p><span>In fragile ecosystems, the introduction of exotic species could alter some ecological processes. The Austral parakeet (<em>Enicognathus</em> <em>ferrugineous</em>) shows close ecological and evolutionary relationships with the Andean Araucaria (<em>Araucaria</em> <em>araucana</em>), so any alteration in these interactions may have negative consequences for both partners and for ecosystem functioning and structure. We conducted extensive roadside surveys to estimate the abundance of parakeets in the northern Patagonian Andes over four years and recorded the food plants consumed by foraging flocks. The use of native habitats and humanized areas like villages and farms was influenced by Araucaria seed crop. In masting years, the large seed crop allowed a massive use of this resource during the non-breeding season, and even during the breeding season. The exploitation of exotic plants was minor in the masting year, but became predominant in non-masting years, especially during the non-breeding season. This feeding switch towards exotic plants primarily arose because the low Araucaria seed crop in non-masting years is entirely consumed just after production by domestic and wild exotic mammals living in Araucaria forests year-round, thus forcing the displacement of parakeets towards anthropic habitats to exploit exotic plants. Given the degradation of the remaining Andean Araucaria forests due to the impact of exotic mammals on the ecological interaction between Araucaria and Austral parakeets, ambitious programs to exclude or reduce the density of these alien mammals, including livestock, are warranted. </span></p>
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Allen Brain Atlas
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Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
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