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Fig. 1 in Functional feeding groups as a taxonomic surrogate for a grassland arthropod assemblage
Fig. 1. The relationship between family and functional feeding group (FFG) richness (A), Shannon diversity (B) and Simpson diversity (C) of arthropods in a grassland habitat in the Free State Province, South Africa between April 2009 and March 2010. Text represents the results of an F-test associated with an ANCOVA analysis comparing FFG with the covariable family and the confounding factor of sampling month.
Fig. 2 in Functional feeding groups as a taxonomic surrogate for a grassland arthropod assemblage
Fig. 2. The observed (A) and smoothed through permutation (999 times, without replacement) (B) proportional accumulation curves for arthropod family (n=108) and functional feeding group (n=36) richness occurring in 360 (100 sweeps) samples of grassland habitat in the Free State Province, South Africa.
Figure 4 in The feeding apparatus of ants: an overview of structure and function
Figure 4. Schematized drawings of an ant (a) and a dog (b) head, illustrating the path of food through the feeding apparatus (red arrows). In the ant, most food presumably passes the infrabuccal pouch first before ingestion, but liquids may also be unhindered by the filter apparatus and pass straight through the mouth opening. Location of the functional mouth opening marked by green dashed line in both. Cyan symbols represent different functions and their locations. Zigzag lines: mechanical food processing/chewing. Triangles: dorsal and ventral closure of the preoral/oral space. Drop: licking of liquids. Spiral: food manipulation in the preoral/oral space. Wavy arrow: ingestion into the digestive tract, sucking pump in ants, tongue and pharyngeal muscles in dog/mammals.
Figure 2 in The feeding apparatus of ants: an overview of structure and function
Figure 2. Micro-computed tomography (µCT)-based 3D reconstructions of the ant feeding apparatus anatomy. Formica rufa in (c) and Leptomyrmex unicolor elsewhere. (a) General ant mouthparts shown individually. Labium lateral, mandible dorsal, maxilla ventral, labrum frontal view. (b) Frontoventral view of closed mouthparts. Labrum covers part of maxillolabial complex and preoral space is sealed off. (c) The same view as figure 1b, but maxilla partly cut away to reveal points of fusion with labium (circles). (d) Musculature of maxillae seen from above, maxilla transparent in lower part. (e) Labium-associated muscles in side view, labium and hypopharynx transparent. (f) Head in sagittal section, focus on sucking pump and its muscles. Insert shows mouth opening with lacinial comb as filter. Colours: grey: head capsule and tentorium; light brown: mandibles; dark brown: labrum and labium; beige: maxilla; light blue: soft cuticle of preoral space; turquoise: hypopharynx; green: sucking pump; purple: salivary duct; red and orange: muscles. Interactive 3D models to further explore mouthpart anatomy are available here: mouthparts: https://skfb.ly/oHJoZ; maxilla: https://skfb.ly/oHJpp; labium: https://skfb.ly/oHJp7; sucking pump: https://skfb.ly/oHJpr.
Figure 1 in The feeding apparatus of ants: an overview of structure and function
Figure 1. Micro-computed tomography (µCT)-based 3D reconstructions of the ant feeding apparatus (Leptomyrmex unicolor), illustrating our current ideas of mouthpart movements. (a) Sagittal section through the head (position of section marked on upper right), highlighting the most likely path of food. Red arrows for solid food, cyan for fluids. Solids are first gripped and processed by the mandibles before transport into the oral cavity by labium and maxillae. Larger particles are filtered at the mouth opening (upper left insert) and stored in the infrabuccal pouch. Hairs of mouth filter not visible in rendering, indicated by drawing. Smaller particles and possibly pre-digested substrate from the pouch pass the filter and are taken up by the sucking pump. Fluids are licked up by the glossa and directly pass the filter. Some prominent movements based mostly on Paul et al. [30,31] are indicated by black arrows: galea is moved up and down, glossa is extended and retracted, whole maxillolabial complex can be rotated outwards or inwards, sucking pump can be extended and compressed. (b) Mouthparts in oblique side view. Maxillolabial complex is partly extended, the galea overhangs the labium. (c) Frontal view of mouthparts with mandibles cut at the base and left maxilla transparent. Sidewards arrows indicate potential outwards movement of maxilla, but maxillolabial fusion likely restricts this direction. Colours: beige: maxillae; blue: membranes of the oral cavity; brown: labrum; dark brown: labium; green: sucking pump; grey: head capsule; purple: salivary duct; turquoise: hypopharynx.
Going underwater! Multiple origins and functional morphology of piercing-sucking feeding and tracheal system adaptations in water scavenger beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Hydrophiloidea)
<p>Supplementary videos:</p> <p>Video S1. Typical feeding behavior of chewing larvae.<em> Tropisternus latus</em> Brullé, 1837 first-instar larva. Note that feeding occurs above water surface.</p> <p>Video S2. Alternative chewing feeding strategy of moluscivorous larvae. <em>Hydrophilus (Dibolocelus) palpalis </em>Brullé, 1837 second-instar larva feeding.</p> <p>Video S3. Piercing-sucking feeding behavior of <em>Hemiosus dejeanii </em>(Solier, 1849) third-instar larva. Note that feeding occurs under water surface.</p> <p>Video S4. Piercing-sucking feeding behavior of <em>Oocyclus magnifica </em>Hebauer & Wang, 1998. Note that feeding occurs inside water film.</p>
Suction feeding turned on its head: a functional novelty facilitates lower jaw protrusion
<p>Functional novelties play important roles in creating new ways for organisms to access resources. In fishes, jaw protrusion has been attributed to the massive diversity of suction-based feeding systems, facilitating the dominant mode of prey capture in this group. Nearly all fishes that feed by suction use upper jaw protrusion, achieved by rotation of the mandible at its base, which then transmits forward motion to independently mobile upper jaw bones. In this study, by contrast, we explore an unusual form of lower jaw protrusion in the freshwater invertivore, <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em>, enabled by a novel intramandibular joint (IMJ). We combine morphological, kinematic, and biomechanical data to show that the added mobility created by the IMJ influences the pattern of suction-based prey capture movements and contributes to lower jaw protrusion (increasing it by 25%, based on biomechanical modeling). Interestingly, the upper jaw bones are fused in <em>N. fasciatus</em> and rotate about a single fixed joint, like the lower jaws of most other suction feeding fishes. We suggest that this vertical inversion of the jaw protrusion mechanism for ventrally directed suction-feeding on benthic prey is a likely exaptation, as the IMJ is used for biting in related taxa. This work highlights the ability of novelties to facilitate ecological specialization by enabling new functional capabilities.</p>
Fig. 4 in Predation functional response and life table parameters of Orius sauteri (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) feeding on Megalurothrips usitatus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
Fig. 4. Age-stage survival rate (sxj) of Orius sauteri on Megalurothrips usitatus at 26 °C.
The burden of size and growth for the juveniles of large mammalian herbivores: structural and functional constraints in the feeding biology of juveniles relative to adults in red kangaroos, Osphranter rufus
<p>Juvenile mammals in their post weaning developmental stages face many challenges in transitioning to adulthood. Among large grazing species such as ruminant bovids and cervids an overarching challenge is acquiring and processing sufficient nutrients to survive and grow, with a gut that may not yet be fully developed. Marsupial kangaroos of Australia face similar challenges; they also digest vegetation by fermentation in a large foregut. In red kangaroos, Osphranter rufus (= Macropus rufus), the dominant species of Australia's arid interior, females may breed continuously; however, juvenile recruitment to the adult population is irregular and coincident with sporadic rainfall. As compared with adult females the nutritional requirements of juvenile O. rufus are high in relation to their body mass (BM), largely due to the cost of their rapid growth. We examined processes that juveniles have in their morphology, physiology and behaviours to meet their elevated nutritional needs, by comparing recently weaned juveniles of both sexes and adult female O. rufus in their desert habitat. Features studied include relative body sizes, relative dimensions and capacities of principal gut regions, the foregut, small intestine, caecum and large intestine with rectum. Also examined were digesta attributes and rates of digesta excretion. Additionally, the rates of change in skull parameters and dental characteristics to maturity were assessed. Field determinations of diet choice were made for both age classes. In juveniles the content masses of major gut structures were related to body mass (BM), as were those of adult females, i. e. ~BM1.0. In both age classes the digesta mass of the foreguts exceeded 75 % of the total digesta mass. Diets of both juvenile and adult O. rufus largely focused on grasses. Juveniles had higher rates of digesta excretion while foraging than adults. In addition, the foregut contents in juveniles occupies proportionally less of the total gut than in adult females. Together, the higher excretion rate and smaller relative foregut of juveniles suggests that they necessarily focus on forage that can be rapidly digested, such as young, green grasses or herbage. Comparison of the skulls of juveniles and adults revealed how this harvest can occur. Relative to BM juveniles had skulls of larger volume than adults. Additionally, during growth the skull lengthens proportionally faster than increasing. By weaning the dimensions of the incisor bite of juveniles neared those of adult females. The area of wear on premolars/molars increased only slowly relative to the development of incisors, further pointing to juveniles selecting more digestible forage than adults. The intermittent availability of such forage, principally young grasses, appears key to the significant recruitment into the O. rufus population in their arid habitat.</p>
Suction feeding turned on its head: a functional novelty facilitates lower jaw protrusion
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Feeding ecology has a stronger evolutionary influence on functional morphology than on body mass in mammals
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The burden of size and growth for the juveniles of large mammalian herbivores: structural and functional constraints in the feeding biology of juveniles relative to adults in red kangaroos, Osphranter rufus
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Data from: Functional dissection of mosquito humidity sensing reveals distinct dry and moist cell contributions to blood feeding and oviposition
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Data from: Anatomy of an agricultural antagonist: Feeding complex structure and function of three xylem sap-feeding insects illuminated with synchrotron-based 3D imaging
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Data from: Pleiotropic jaw morphology links the evolution of mechanical modularity and functional feeding convergence in Lake Malawi Cichlids
Complexity in how mechanistic variation translates into ecological novelty could be critical to organismal diversification. For instance, when multiple distinct morphologies can generate the same mechanical or functional phenotype this could mitigate tradeoffs and/or provide alternative ways to meet the same ecological challenge. To investigate how this type of complexity shapes diversity in a classic adaptive radiation, we tested several evolutionary consequences of the anterior jaw four-bar linkage for Lake Malawi cichlid trophic diversification. Using a novel phylogenetic framework, we demonstrated that different mechanical outputs of the same four jaw elements are evolutionarily associated with both jaw protrusion distance and jaw protrusion angle. However, these two functional aspects of jaw protrusion have evolved independently. Additionally, although four-bar morphology showed little evidence for attraction to optima, there was substantial evidence of adaptive peaks for emergent four-bar linkage mechanics and jaw protrusion abilities among Malawi feeding guilds. Finally, we highlighted a clear case of "cryptic convergence" in which two cichlid species that have independently evolved to graze algae in less than two million years, have converged on similar jaw protrusion abilities as well as four-bar linkage mechanics, but have evolved these similarities via non-convergent four-bar morphologies.
Dual function of epaxial musculature for swimming and suction feeding in largemouth bass
<p>The axial musculature of many fishes generates the power for both swimming and suction feeding. In the case of the epaxial musculature, unilateral activation bends the body laterally for swimming, and bilateral activation bends the body dorsally to elevate the neurocranium for suction feeding. But how does a single muscle group effectively power these two distinct behaviors? Prior electromyographic (EMG) studies have identified fishes' ability to activate dorsal and ventral epaxial regions independently, but no studies have directly compared the intensity and spatial activation patterns between swimming and feeding. We measured EMG activity throughout the epaxial musculature during swimming (turning, sprinting, and fast-starts) and suction feeding (goldfish and pellet strikes) in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). We found that swimming involved obligate activation of ventral epaxial regions whereas suction feeding involved obligate activation of dorsal epaxial regions, suggesting regional specialization of the epaxial musculature. However, during fast-starts and suction feeding on live prey, bass routinely activated the whole epaxial musculature, demonstrating the dual function of this musculature in the highest performance behaviors. Activation intensities in suction feeding were substantially lower than fast-starts which, in conjunction with suboptimal shortening velocities, suggests that bass maximize axial muscle performance during locomotion and underutilize it for suction feeding.</p>
Data from: Feed or fight: testing the impact of food availability and intraspecific aggression on the functional ecology of an island lizard
Body size often varies among insular populations relative to continental conspecifics – the 'island rule' – and functional, context-dependent morphological differences tend to track this body size variation on islands. Two hypotheses are often proposed as potential drivers of insular population differences in morphology: one relating to diet and the other involving intraspecific competition and aggression. We directly tested whether differences in morphology and maximum bite capacity were explained by interisland changes in hardness of both available and consumed prey, and levels of lizard-to-lizard aggression among small-island populations. Our study included 11 islands in the Greek Cyclades and made use of a gradient in island area spanning five orders of magnitude. We focused on the widespread lizard Podarcis erhardii. We found that on smaller islands, P. erhardii body size was larger, head height was larger relative to body size, and maximum bite capacity became proportionally stronger. This pattern in morphology and performance was not related to differences in diet, but was highly correlated with proxies of intraspecific aggression – bite scars and missing toes. Our findings suggest that critical functional traits such as body size and bite force in P. erhardii follow the predictions of the island rule and are changing in response to changes in the competitive landscape across islands of different sizes.
Figure 14 in REVIEW Going underwater: multiple origins and functional morphology of piercing-sucking feeding and tracheal system adaptations in water scavenger beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Hydrophiloidea)
Figure 14. Summary of the main structures related with apneustic respiratory system. A–C, Berosus decolor Knisch, 1924, light microscope photograph: A, habitus, first-instar larva, dorsal view; B; terminal spiracle, third-instar larva, dorsal view; C; detail of the abdominal spiracular trachea and tracheal gill, dorsal view. D, Berosus pallipes Brullé, 1841, abdominal spiracle, third-instar larva, dorsal view. E–H, Berosus sp., third-instar larva, SEM micrograph: E, spiracular chamber, ventral view; F; first abdominal segment bearing tracheal gill, dorsal view; G, detail of tracheal gill surface; H, abdominal spiracle. I, J, Hemiosus bruchi Knisch, 1924, third-instar larva, SEM micrograph: I, last abdominal segments, dorsal view; J, abdominal spiracle. K, Hemiosus multimaculatus (Jensen-Haarup, 1910), spiracular chamber, third-instar larva, ventral view.
Figure 15 in REVIEW Going underwater: multiple origins and functional morphology of piercing-sucking feeding and tracheal system adaptations in water scavenger beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Hydrophiloidea)
Figure 15. Phylogeny of the Hydrophiloidea with mapped evolution of tracheal system (A) and mouthparts (B, C). Two alternative ancestral state reconstructions of mouthparts, considering mouthparts of the Pelthydrus-group as: B, piercingsucking; C, chewing (only tribe Laccobiini shown). D, number of species of aquatic genera of Hydrophilidae with known larvae. Colors of branches/bars/pie-charts indicate functional morphology of mouthparts (red = piercing-sucking, blue = chewing, green = filter-feeding) and development of the tracheal system (grey = open; orange = closed).
Figure 12 in REVIEW Going underwater: multiple origins and functional morphology of piercing-sucking feeding and tracheal system adaptations in water scavenger beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Hydrophiloidea)
Figure 12. Schematic drawing of the piercing-sucking feeding mechanism: 1, sucking channel; 2, epistomal-mandibular coupling system; 3, flexible area.
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