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FIGURE 8 in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 8. Depth of water required for Spinosaurus to avoid the considerable effects of wave drag. Even with the hind limbs lifted up, the animal is nearly 3 m in dorsoventral height so to avoid wave drag (fully submerged by over 3.5 m) the water would need to be close to 6 m in depth for Spinosaurus to swim efficiently. This is a minimum and the real value is likely to be higher (see text for details). Outline modified from Ibrahim et al. (2020a) and scale bar equals 1 m.

FIGURE 4 in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 4. Graph of theropod ungual curvature vs ungual length. The inset shows how the curvature of the unguals was measured. In lateral view a line AB is drawn between the ungual tip and the base. This is bisected by a perpendicular line until it contacts the ungual at point C. Lines are drawn from A to C and A to B and the internal angle measured. Unguals of Spinosaurus are in red, a further specimen attributed to a spinosaur is in yellow, and individual specimens are abbreviated as follows: Ab, abelisaurid; Ac, Acrocanthosaurus; Ai, Alioramus; Al, Allosaurus; Ca, Caudipteryx; Ce, ceratosaur; Co, Compsognathus; Di, Dilophosaurus; Ga, Gaulicho; Gg, Gigantoraptor; Gl, Gallimimus; Gu, Guanlong; Ha, Halszkaraptor; Ju, Juravenator; Ki, Kileskus; Li, Limusaurus; Mj, Majungasaurus; Sc, Spectrovenator; Sd, spinosaurid; Sn, Sinraptor; Sp, Spinosaurus; SB, Spinosaurus B; Tt, Tyrannotitan; Ty, Tyrannosaurus.

FIGURE 3 in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 3. Graphs of various skull measurements to show the relationship between skull shape for different ecotypes. The red point is Spinosaurus, yellow are other spinosaurids, green are terrestrial taxa, pale blue are semi-aquatic and dark blue, fully aquatic animals. Least squares regressions are given for the terrestrial, semi-aquatic and aquatic datasets (the various spinosaurids were not included in these calculations), and the R2 values for these regressions are given.

FIGURE 2 in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 2. Principal Components Analysis of various measurements of the skull rescaled to skull length. Principal Component 1 (83.5% of variance) plotted against Principal Component 2 (13.7% of variance), plotted using eigenvalue scale. The red point is Spinosaurus, yellow are other spinosaurids, green are terrestrial taxa, pale blue are semi-aquatic, and dark blue, fully aquatic animals. Silhouettes are from PhyloPic.org and color-coordinated with the lines of the convex hulls for the groups of taxa they represent: the red Suchomimus (representing Spinosauridae; red Xs), the light green Allosaurus (representing non-spinosaurid Theropoda; open light green circles), and the orange Paleorhinus (representing phytosaurs: light brown pluses) are by Scott Hartman; blue Peloneustes (representing Plesiosauria: solid dark blue circles) by Nobu Tamura; dark green Varanus (representing terrestrial lepidosaurs: green asterisks) and dark brown Crocodylus (representing Crocodyliformes: dark brown pluses) by Steven Traver. Additional taxa plot include thallatosuchians (solid light blue circles), the mosasauroid Plotosaurus (blue asterisk), the nothosauroid Lariosaurus (solid aqua circle), and freshwater semi-aquatic lepidosaurs (open orange squares). The inset shows a reptile skull and how measurements were taken for the data used here and in Figure 3.

FIGURE 1 in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 1. Skeleton in a standing posture as if dip fishing in water following the wading model, and in a swimming posture (based on Ibrahim et al., 2020a) following the pursuit predator model. A non-exhaustive set of lines of evidence as described in the text are indicated by arrows that either directly support either model (white arrow), are ambiguous or do not contradict the model (grey arrow), or actively contradict the model (black arrow). Key traits are as follows: A) laterally compressed skull, B) nares position, C) mechanical jaw performance, D) orbit position, E) neck stiffness and posture, F) non-hydrodynamic shape, G) instability in water, H) sub-anguilliform locomotion, I) thin caudal neural spines, J) tail propulsion, K) distal tail flexibility, L) low swimming efficiency, M) somewhat reduced hind limbs, N) enlarged 1st toe, O) pachyostosis, P) pneumatic elements, Q) forelimbs not reduced, R) neck ventriflexion, S) quadrate shape, T) head posture (as determined for Irritator), U) isotopic data from teeth, V) tooth enamel ridges, W) rostral sensory system. Skeleton modified from the original by Genya Masukawa (used with permission) and scaled to the size of the neotype. Scale bar is 1 m.

FIGURE 5 in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 5. Comparison of skull shape of Spinosaurus and Baryonyx scaled to the same size. The two are very similar, which although this may be expected from their shared evolutionary history would suggest that they fundamentally forage in similar ways for similar prey, which contradicts the idea that one is an aquatic specialist. Not to scale.

FIGURE 7. A in Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist?

FIGURE 7. A) Skull of a stork (Leptoptilos - scale bar is 100 mm) with a posteriorly retracted naris allowing them to forage while keeping the nares free of the water as in B) showing Ephipporhynchus senegalensis feeding. Although proportionally much further back here than in Spinosaurus, the absolute distance of the naris from the anterior tip of the jaw is less in the stork. C) Skull of crocodylian (Crocodylus - scale bar is 100 mm) with dorsally positioned naris allowing them to rest with minimal exposure of the head as in D) Crocodylus niloticus resting at the surface (image courtesy of Jonathan J. Meisenbach).

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2022View details →

Figure 1 in Nocturnal ant integrates generalist pollination system in the Caatinga dry forest

Figure 1. Visit behaviour of Camponotus pallescens on Ditassa hastata flowers in the Catimbau National Park, Pernambuco, Brazil. (A-B) C. pallescens taking nectar in different positions and (C) its visit frequency to D. hastata flowers throughout the night. (Black dots indicate median and error bars indicate first and third quartiles; Different letters indicate statistically significant difference from Kruskal-Wallis test with pairwise comparisons using Wilcoxon rank sum test with α=0.05)

opencc-by-4.0Sep 2015View details →

Fig. 2 in The abundance of specialist and generalist lepidopteran larvae on a single host plant species: Does spatial scale matter?

Fig. 2. Specialist lepidopteran species on Roupala montana. (A–C) Chlamydastis platyspora: (A) larva, (B) larva inside the shelter, (C) adult; (E–G) Stenoma cathosiota: (E) larva, (F) shelter, (G) adult; (H–J) species of new genus of Depressariidae: (H) larva,(I) shelter, (J) adult; (K–M) Idalus lineosus: (K–L) 6th instar showing variation in color, (M) adult; (N–O) Symmachia hippodice: (N) larva, (O) adult female, (P) adult male; (Q–S) Eomichla sp.: (Q–R) larva inside the shelter, (S) adult.

opencc-by-4.0Sep 2015View details →

Fig. 1 in The abundance of specialist and generalist lepidopteran larvae on a single host plant species: Does spatial scale matter?

Fig. 1. Locations of the 5 study areas, as follows: A) a map of Brazil, with the coverage area of the Cerrado Biome shaded; B) a map of Goiás State, showing the locations of Parque Estadual dos Pireneus (PEP) and Parque Nacional Chapada dos Veadeiros (PNCV); and C) a map of Distrito Federal (DF), showing the locations of Fazenda Água Limpa (FAL), Parque Nacional de Brasília (PNB), and Jardim Botânico de Brasília (JBB).

Fig. 5 in Inherited sterility in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): Pest population suppression and potential for combined use with a generalist predator

Fig. 5. Prey consumption in the choice test involving progeny of irradiated females. Number of T. absoluta eggs consumed per T. cucurbitaceus (mean ± SE) individual in 24 h from the following T. absoluta eggs crosses, ♀U × ƋU and ♀I × ƋU. The different letters above the 2 error bars indicates that there was a significant difference in the numbers of eggs consumed based on the crosses from which they had originated, even though the female parent had been irradiated in 1 of the crosses (paired t tests, P <0.05). U = untreated, I = irradiated.

Fig. 3 in Inherited sterility in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): Pest population suppression and potential for combined use with a generalist predator

Fig. 3. Prey consumption in the no-choice test. Number of T. absoluta eggs consumed per T. cucurbitaceus (mean ± SE) individual in 24 h from following T. absoluta eggs crosses: ♀U × ƋU,♀U × ƋI or ♀I × ƋU.The same letter above the 3 error bars indicates that there were no significant differences in the numbers of eggs consumed based on the crosses from which they had originated (ANOVA, P> 0.05). U = untreated, I = irradiated.

Fig. 1 in Inherited sterility in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): Pest population suppression and potential for combined use with a generalist predator

Fig. 1. Population suppression by irradiated individuals and their progeny over 12 weeks at a 10:1 irradiated:untreated ratio. a) Number of eggs/ cage, b) number of small larvae /cage and c) number of large larvae/cage (mean ± SE). Only 1 release of irradiated moths was made, i.e., at the beginning of the experiment. For details see text on Experiment 1.

Fig. 4 in Inherited sterility in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): Pest population suppression and potential for combined use with a generalist predator

Fig. 4. Prey consumption in the choice test involving progeny of irradiated males. Number of T. absoluta eggs from following T. absoluta eggs crosses, ♀U × ƋU and ♀U × ƋI,consumed per T. cucurbitaceus (mean ± SE) individual in 24 h. The same letter above the 2 error bars indicates that there was no significant difference in the numbers of eggs consumed based on the crosses from which they had originated, even though the male parent had been irradiated in 1 of the crosses (paired t tests, P> 0.05). U = untreated, I = irradiated.

Fig. 2 in Inherited sterility in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): Pest population suppression and potential for combined use with a generalist predator

Fig. 2. Population suppression by irradiated individuals and their progeny over 12 weeks at a 15:1 irradiated:untreated ratio. a) Number of eggs/cage, b) number of small larvae /cage and c) number of large larvae/cage (mean ± SE). Only 1 release of irradiated moths was made, i.e., at the beginning of the experiment. For details see text on Experiment 2.

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2013View details →

Fig. 2 in Relative competence of native and exotic fish hosts for two generalist native trematodes

Fig. 2. Mean worm size of the trematodes Telogaster opisthorchis (a) and Stegodexamene anguillae (b) in experimentally infected exotic brown trout and rainbow trout, and native longfin eel. Error bars indicate standard error.

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2013View details →

Fig. 3 in Relative competence of native and exotic fish hosts for two generalist native trematodes

Fig. 3. Flowchart summarising the circulation and transmission dynamics of trematodes, (a) Telogaster opisthorchis and (b) Stegodexamene anguillae, in native and exotic hosts in Lake Pearson. (Native fish images; McDowall, 2000; exotic fish; Rauque et al., 2003.)

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2013View details →

Fig. 1 in Relative competence of native and exotic fish hosts for two generalist native trematodes

Fig. 1. Mean worm size, number of eggs and egg volume of the trematodes Telogaster opisthorchis (a, c, e) and Stegodexamene anguillae (b, d, f) naturally infecting exotic salmonids (Lake Pearson) and native longfin eel (Lake Sumner). Error bars indicate standard error, ‡‡‡ Significant differences (P <0.0001).

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2014View details →

Fig. 1 in Generalists at the interface: Nematode transmission between wild and domestic ungulates

Fig. 1. Correlation between degree (vertical axis) and number of references (horizontal axis) for nematode parasites of wild ungulate species (black dots). Blue line is fitted linear model, and gray area shows standard error.