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159 results for “genetic heterogeneity”
Seedling traits from root to shoot exhibit genetic diversity and distinct responses to environmental heterogeneity within a tree population
<p>Phenotypic diversity within plant species is crucial to shaping evolutionary responses of populations and interactions among species, yet intraspecific genetic variability notably in roots has attracted little attention. Further, evidence for the root−shoot trait synchronisation remains inconclusive, narrowing our understanding of the role that belowground traits play in local adaptation. We applied broad 'top-to-toe' phenotyping to a model system whose native environmental conditions were simulated in experimental settings. Fifteen maternal families of Norway spruce <i>Picea abies </i>from southern Finland grew in six combinations of two simulated growing seasons and three soil treatments. We scored variation in 25 functional traits, including size, architecture and morphology of intact root systems, and shoot growth and phenology. Careful phenotyping of roots uncovered five trait dimensions, with root size, architecture and morphology forming the three largest axes of variation. Dimensions varied in their treatment responses. We observed among-family differences in all trait dimensions, marking substantial within-population genetic diversity. For example, average total root length varied almost twofold among families, but family × soil interactions indicated treatment-specific estimates of genetic variance. Mirroring root traits, phenotypic plasticity and genetic variation characterised shoot growth and phenology. In all, the complete phenotypic dataset yielded six trait dimensions, with assorted measures of root system and shoot size composing the main axis of variation. Although plastic and genetically variable, root architecture and morphology were not associated with shoot growth in any treatment. Also phenology and root-to-shoot ratio were detached from the primary axis of trait variability. Our results demonstrate that complex within-species patterns of trait covariation can be observed even locally and that phenotypic variation in independent trait dimensions reflecting divergent growth strategies is under genetic control. More accurate predictions of population and species responses to changes in the environment can be achieved when such intraspecific diversity is taken into account.</p>
Data from: Landscape determinants of fine-scale genetic structure of a small rodent in a heterogeneous landscape (Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, South Africa)
Small mammals provide ecosystem services, acting, for example, as pollinators and seed dispersers. In addition, they are also disease reservoirs that can be detrimental to human health and they can also act as crop pests. Knowledge of their dispersal preferences is therefore useful for population management and landscape planning. Genetic data were used alongside landscape data to examine the influence of the landscape on the demographic connectedness of the Natal multimammate mouse (Mastomys natalensis) and to identify landscape characteristics that influence the genetic structure of this species across a spatially and temporally varying environment. The most significant landscape features shaping gene flow were aspect, vegetation cover, topographic complexity (TC) and rivers, with western facing slopes, topographic complexity and rivers restricting gene flow. In general, thicket vegetation was correlated with increased gene flow. Identifying features of the landscape that facilitate movement/dispersal in M. natalensis potentially has application for other small mammals in similar ecosystems. As the primary reservoir host of the zoonotic Lassa virus, a landscape genetics approach may have applications in determining areas of high disease risk to humans. Identifying these landscape features may also be important in crop management due to damage by rodent pests.
Data from: Landscape heterogeneity and local adaptation define the spatial genetic structure of Pacific salmon in a pristine environment
Identifying the spatial distribution of genetic variation across the landscape is an essential step in informing species conservation. Comparison of closely related and geographically overlapping species can be particularly useful in cases where landscape may similarly influence genetic structure. Congruent patterns among species highlight the importance that landscape heterogeneity plays in determining genetic structure whereas contrasting patterns emphasize differences in species-specific ecology and life-history or the importance of species-specific adaptation to local environments. We examined the interacting roles of demography and adaptation in determining spatial genetic structure in two closely related and geographically overlapping species in a pristine environment. Using single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci exhibiting both neutral and putative adaptive variation, we evaluated the genetic structure of sockeye salmon in the Copper River, Alaska; these data were compared to existing data for Chinook salmon from the same region. Overall, both species exhibited patterns of isolation by distance; the spatial distribution of populations largely determined the distribution of genetic variation across the landscape. Further, both species exhibited largely congruent patterns of within- and among-population genetic diversity, highlighting the role that landscape heterogeneity and historical processes play in determining spatial genetic structure. Potential adaptive differences among geographically proximate sockeye salmon populations were observed when high FST outlier SNPs were evaluated in a landscape genetics context. Results were evaluated in the context of conservation efforts with an emphasis on reproductive isolation, historical processes, and local adaptation.
Data from: Does genetic variation maintained by environmental heterogeneity facilitate adaptation to novel selection?
Environmental heterogeneity helps maintain genetic variation in fitness. Therefore, one might predict that populations living in heterogeneous environments have higher adaptive potential than populations living in homogeneous environments. Such a prediction could be useful in guiding conservation priorities without requiring detailed genetic studies. However, this prediction will be true only if the additional genetic variation maintained by environmental heterogeneity can be used to respond to novel selection. Here we examine the effect of environmental heterogeneity on future adaptability using replicated experimental Drosophila melanogaster populations that had previously evolved for ∼100 generations under one of four selective regimes: constant salt-enriched larvae medium, constant cadmium-enriched larvae medium, and two heterogeneous regimes that vary either temporally or spatially between the two media. Replicates of these experimental populations were subjected to a novel heat stress while being maintained in their original larval diet selection regimes. Adaptation to increased temperature was measured with respect to female productivity and male siring success after ∼20 generations. For female productivity, there was evidence of adaptation overall and heterogeneous populations had a larger adaptive response than homogeneous populations. There was less evidence of adaptation overall for male siring success and no support for faster adaptation in heterogeneous populations.
Data from: Examining the full effects of landscape heterogeneity on spatial genetic variation: a multiple matrix regression approach for quantifying geographic and ecological isolation
Understanding the effects of landscape heterogeneity on spatial genetic variation is a primary goal of landscape genetics. Ecological and geographic variables can contribute to genetic structure through geographic isolation, in which geographic barriers and distances restrict gene flow, and ecological isolation, in which gene flow among populations inhabiting different environments is limited by selection against dispersers moving between them. Although methods have been developed to study geographic isolation in detail, ecological isolation has received much less attention, partly because disentangling the effects of these mechanisms is inherently difficult. Here, I describe a novel approach for quantifying the effects of geographic and ecological isolation using multiple matrix regression with randomization. I explored the parameter space over which this method is effective using a series of individual-based simulations and found that it accurately describes the effects of geographic and ecological isolation over a wide range of conditions. I also applied this method to a set of real-world datasets to show that ecological isolation is an often overlooked but important contributor to patterns of spatial genetic variation and to demonstrate how this analysis can provide new insights into how landscapes contribute to the evolution of genetic variation in nature.
Data from: Geographical isolation and environmental heterogeneity contribute to the spatial genetic patterns of Quercus kerrii (Fagaceae)
Southwest China is one of the major global biodiversity hotspots. The Tanaka line, extending within southwestern China from its northwest to its southeast, is an important biogeographical boundary between the Sino-Japanese and Sino-Himalayan floristic regions. Understanding the evolutionary history of the regional keystone species would assist with both reconstructing historical vegetation dynamics and ongoing biodiversity management. In this research, we combined phylogeographic methodologies and species distribution models (SDMs) to investigate the spatial genetic patterns and distribution dynamics of Quercus kerrii, a dominant evergreen oak inhabiting southwest China lowland evergreen broadleaved forests (EBLFs). A total of 403 individuals were sampled from 44 populations throughout southwest China. SDMs and mismatch distribution analysis indicated that Q. kerrii has undergone northward expansion since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Quantitative analysis revealed that the range expansion of Q. kerrii since the LGM exceeded that of the sympatric mid-elevation species Quercus schottkyana, likely owing to their contrasting distribution elevations and habitat availabilities. The historical climate change since the LGM and the latitude gradient of the region played an important role in shaping the genetic diversity of Q. kerrii. The genetic differentiation index and genetic distance surface of Q. kerrii populations east of the Tanaka line exceeded those to its west. The long-term geographic isolation and environmental heterogeneity between the two sides of the Tanaka line might increase species divergence patterns and local adaptation. This study provides new insights into the historical dynamics of subtropical EBLFs and the changing biota of southwest China.
Data from: Modelling the dispersal of the two main hosts of the raccoon rabies variant in heterogeneous environments with landscape genetics
Predicting the geographic spread of wildlife epidemics requires knowledge about the movement patterns of disease hosts or vectors. The field of landscape genetics provides valuable approaches to study dispersal indirectly, which in turn may be used to understand patterns of disease spread. Here, we applied landscape genetic analyses and spatially explicit models to identify the potential path of raccoon rabies spread in a mesocarnivore community. We used relatedness estimates derived from microsatellite genotypes of raccoons and striped skunks to investigate their dispersal patterns in a heterogeneous landscape composed predominantly of agricultural, forested and residential areas. Samples were collected in an area covering 22 000 km2 in southern Québec, where the raccoon rabies variant (RRV) was first detected in 2006. Multiple regressions on distance matrices revealed that genetic distance among male raccoons was strictly a function of geographic distance, while dispersal in female raccoons was significantly reduced by the presence of agricultural fields. In skunks, our results suggested that dispersal is increased in edge habitats between fields and forest fragments in both males and females. Resistance modelling allowed us to identify likely dispersal corridors used by these two rabies hosts, which may prove especially helpful for surveillance and control (e.g. oral vaccination) activities.
Data from: Spatial soil heterogeneity has a greater effect on symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities and plant growth than genetic modification with Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes
Maize, genetically modified with the insect toxin genes of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), is widely cultivated, yet its impacts on soil organisms are poorly understood. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbiotic associations with plant roots and may be uniquely sensitive to genetic changes within a plant host. In this field study, the effects of nine different lines of Bt maize and their corresponding non-Bt parental isolines were evaluated on AMF colonization and community diversity in plant roots. Plants were harvested 60 days after sowing, and data were collected on plant growth and per cent AMF colonization of roots. AMF community composition in roots was assessed using 454 pyrosequencing of the 28S rRNA genes, and spatial variation in mycorrhizal communities within replicated experimental field plots was examined. Growth responses, per cent AMF colonization of roots and AMF community diversity in roots did not differ between Bt and non-Bt maize, but root and shoot biomass and per cent colonization by arbuscules varied by maize cultivar. Plot identity had the most significant effect on plant growth, AMF colonization and AMF community composition in roots, indicating spatial heterogeneity in the field. Mycorrhizal fungal communities in maize roots were autocorrelated within approximately 1 m, but at greater distances, AMF community composition of roots differed between plants. Our findings indicate that spatial variation and heterogeneity in the field has a greater effect on the structure of AMF communities than host plant cultivar or modification by Bt toxin genes.
Data from: Spatial genetic and morphologic structure of wolves and coyotes in relation to environmental heterogeneity in a Canis hybrid zone
Eastern wolves have hybridized extensively with coyotes and gray wolves and are listed as a 'species of special concern' in Canada. However, a distinct population of eastern wolves has been identified in Algonquin Provincial Park (APP) in Ontario. Previous Canis studies have not linked genetic analysis with field data to investigate genotype-specific morphology or determine how resident animals of different ancestry are distributed across the landscape in relation to heterogeneous environmental conditions. Accordingly, we studied resident wolves and coyotes in and adjacent to APP to identify distinct Canis types, clarify the occurrence of eastern wolves adjacent to APP, and investigate spatial genetic structure and landscape-genotype associations in the hybrid zone. We documented 3 genetically distinct Canis types that also differed morphologically, corresponding to putative gray wolves, eastern wolves, and coyotes. We also documented a substantial number of hybrid individuals (36%). Breeding eastern wolves were less common outside of APP, but occurred in some unprotected areas. We identified a steep cline extending west from APP where the dominant genotype shifted abruptly from eastern wolves to coyotes and hybrids. The genotypic pattern to the south and northwest was a more complex mosaic of alternating genotypes. We modeled genetic ancestry in response to prey availability and human disturbance and found positive and negative associations between wolf ancestry and 1) moose density and 2) road densities, respectively. Our results clarify the structure of the Canis hybrid zone adjacent to APP and provide unique insight into environmental conditions influencing hybridization dynamics between wolves and coyotes.
Data from: Next-generation phylogeography of the cockle Cerastoderma glaucum: highly heterogeneous genetic differentiation in a lagoon species
Aim. Coastal lagoons form an intriguing example of fragmented marine habitats. Restricted gene flow among isolated populations of lagoon species may promote their genetic divergence, and may thus provide a first step towards speciation. In the present study, the population genetic structure of the lagoon cockle Cerastoderma glaucum has been investigated to clarify the complex phylogeographic pattern found in previous studies, to localize major genetic breaks and to discuss their origin and maintenance. Location. The Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, including the Baltic, North Sea and Black Sea. Methods. 204 C. glaucum individuals from 14 populations were genotyped using restriction-site associated DNA-sequencing (RADseq). The genetic diversity, divergence and structure were analyzed using genome-wide Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs). Phylogenetic relationships were inferred under a coalescent model using SVDquartets. Results. The RADseq approach allowed inferring phylogeogeaphic relationships with an unprecedented resolution. Three deeply divergent lineages were identified within C. glaucum that are separated by many genetic barriers: one lineage in the Aegean-Black Sea region, one in the Ionian Sea, and the last one widely distributed from the Western Mediterranean to the Baltic Sea. The nested branching pattern displayed on the species tree largely agrees with the likely scenario of C. glaucum post-glacial expansion from the Mediterranean to the Baltic Sea. Main conclusion. The genetic differentiations between geographically separated lagoons proved to be strong, highlighting the evolutionary influence of these naturally fragmented habitats. The post-glacial expansion created complex patterns of spatial segregation of genetic diversity with allele frequency gradients in many outlier loci, but also discrepancies between the nuclear and mitochondrial genetic markers that probably arose from genetic surfing of mitochondrial variation.
Data from: Heterogeneity in genetic diversity among non-coding loci fails to fit neutral coalescent models of population history
Inferring aspects of the population histories of species using coalescent analyses of non-coding nuclear DNA has grown in popularity. These inferences, such as divergence, gene flow, and changes in population size, assume that genetic data reflect simple population histories and neutral evolutionary processes. However, violating model assumptions can result in a poor fit between empirical data and the models. We sampled 22 nuclear intron sequences from at least 19 different chromosomes (a genomic transect) to test for deviations from selective neutrality in the gadwall (Anas strepera), a Holarctic duck. Nucleotide diversity among these loci varied by nearly two orders of magnitude (from 0.0004 to 0.029), and this heterogeneity could not be explained by differences in substitution rates. Using two different coalescent methods to infer models of population history and then simulating neutral genetic diversity under these models, we found that the among-locus heterogeneity in nucleotide diversity was significantly higher than expected for these simple models. Defining more complex models of population history demonstrated that a pre-divergence bottleneck was also unlikely to explain this heterogeneity. However, both selection and interspecific hybridization could account for the heterogeneity observed among loci. Regardless of the cause of the deviation, our results illustrate that violating key assumptions of coalescent models can mislead inferences of population history.
Data from: Comparative landscape genetics of pond-breeding amphibians in Mediterranean temporal wetlands: the positive role of structural heterogeneity in promoting gene flow
Comparative landscape genetics studies can provide key information to implement cost-effective conservation measures favoring a broad set of taxa. These studies are scarce, particularly in Mediterranean areas, which include diverse but threatened biological communities. Here we focus on Mediterranean wetlands in central Iberia and perform a multi-level, comparative study of two endemic pond-breeding amphibians, a salamander (Pleurodeles waltl) and a toad (Pelobates cultripes). We genotyped 411 salamanders from 20 populations and 306 toads from 16 populations at 18 and 16 microsatellite loci, respectively, and identified major factors associated with population connectivity through the analysis of three sets of variables potentially affecting gene flow at increasingly finer levels of spatial resolution. Topographic, land use/cover, and remotely sensed vegetation/moisture indices were used to derive optimized resistance surfaces for the two species. We found contrasting patterns of genetic structure, with stronger, finer-scale genetic differentiation in Pleurodeles waltl, and notable differences in the role of fine-scale patterns of heterogeneity in vegetation cover and water content in shaping patterns of regional genetic structure in the two species. Overall, our results suggest a positive role of structural heterogeneity in population connectivity in pond-breeding amphibians, with habitat patches of Mediterranean scrubland and open oak woodlands ("dehesas") facilitating gene flow. Our study highlights the usefulness of remotely sensed continuous variables of land cover, vegetation and water content (e.g., NDVI, NDMI) in conservation-oriented studies aimed at identifying major drivers of population connectivity.
Data from: Genet dynamics of a regenerating dwarf bamboo population across heterogeneous light environments in a temperate forest understorey
Despite the advantage of plant clonality in patchy environments, studies focusing on genet demography in relation to spatially heterogeneous environments remain scarce. Regeneration of bamboos in forest understoreys after synchronous die-off provides an opportunity for assessing how they come to proliferate across heterogeneous light environments. In a Japanese forest, we examined genet demography of a population of Sasa kurilensis over a 7-year period starting 10 years after die-off, shortly after which some genets began spreading horizontally by rhizomes. The aboveground biomass was estimated and genets were discriminated in 9-m2 plots placed under both canopy gaps and closed canopies. Overall, the results suggest that the survival and spread of more productive genets and the spatial expansion of genets into closed canopies underlie the proliferation of S. kurilensis. Compared to canopy gaps, the recovery rate of biomass was much slower under closed canopies for the first 10 years after the die-off, but became accelerated during the next seven years. Genet survival was greater for more productive genets (with greater initial number of culms), and the spaces occupied by genets that died were often colonized afterward by clonal growth of surviving genets. The number of genets decreased under canopy gaps due to greater mortality, but increased under closed canopies where greater number of genets colonized clonally from outside the plots than genets died. The colonizing genets were more productive (having larger culms) than those originally germinated within the plots, and the contribution of colonizing genets to the biomass was greater under closed canopies. Our study emphasizes the importance of investigating genet dynamics over relevant spatio-temporal scales to reveal processes underlying the success of clonal plants in heterogeneous habitats.
Data from: Recent range expansion and agricultural landscape heterogeneity have only minimal effect on the spatial genetic structure of the plant pathogenic fungus Mycosphaerella fijiensis
Understanding how geographical and environmental features affect genetic variation at both the population and individual levels is crucial in biology, especially in the case of pathogens. However, distinguishing between these factors and the effects of historical range expansion on spatial genetic structure remains challenging. In the present study, we investigated the case of Mycosphaerella fijiensis-a plant pathogenic fungus that has recently colonized an agricultural landscape characterized by the presence of potential barriers to gene flow, including several commercial plantations in which disease control practises such as the use of fungicides are applied frequently, and low host density areas. We first genotyped 300 isolates sampled at a global scale on untreated plants in 2 dimensions over a 50x80 Km area. Using two different clustering algorithms, no genetic structure was detected in the studied area, suggesting expansion of large populations and/or no influ ence of potential barriers. Second, we investigated the potential effect of disease control practises on M. fijiensis diversity by comparing populations sampled in commercial vs. food-crop plantations. At this local scale, we detected significantly higher allelic richness inside commercial plantations compared to the surrounding food-crop plantation populations. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that 99% of the total genetic variance occurred within populations. We discuss the suggestion that high population size and/or high migration rate between populations might be responsible for the absence of any effect of disease control practises on genetic diversity and differentiation.
Data from: Heterogeneity of genetic architecture of body size traits in a free-living population
Knowledge of the underlying genetic architecture of quantitative traits could aid in understanding how they evolve. In wild populations, it is still largely unknown whether complex traits are polygenic or influenced by few loci with major effect, due to often small sample sizes and low resolution of marker panels. Here, we examine the genetic architecture of five adult body size traits in a free-living population of Soay sheep on St Kilda using 37 037 polymorphic SNPs. Two traits (jaw and weight) show classical signs of a polygenic trait: the proportion of variance explained by a chromosome was proportional to its length, multiple chromosomes and genomic regions explained significant amounts of phenotypic variance, but no SNPs were associated with trait variance when using GWAS. In comparison, genetic variance for leg length traits (foreleg, hindleg and metacarpal) was disproportionately explained by two SNPs on chromosomes 16 (s23172.1) and 19 (s74894.1), which each explained >10% of the additive genetic variance. After controlling for environmental differences, females heterozygous for s74894.1 produced more lambs and recruits during their lifetime than females homozygous for the common allele conferring long legs. We also demonstrate that alleles conferring shorter legs have likely entered the population through a historic admixture event with the Dunface sheep. In summary, we show that different proxies for body size can have very different genetic architecture and that dense SNP helps in understanding both the mode of selection and the evolutionary history at loci underlying quantitative traits in natural populations.
Data from: Spatial heterogeneity in landscape structure influences dispersal and genetic structure: empirical evidence from a grasshopper in an agricultural landscape
Dispersal may be strongly influenced by landscape and habitat characteristics that could either enhance or restrict movements of organisms. Therefore, spatial heterogeneity in landscape structure could influence gene flow and the spatial structure of populations. In the past decades, agricultural intensification has led to the reduction in grassland surfaces, their fragmentation and intensification. As these changes are not homogeneously distributed in landscapes, they have resulted in spatial heterogeneity with generally less intensified hedged farmland areas remaining alongside streams and rivers. In this study, we assessed spatial pattern of abundance and population genetic structure of a flightless grasshopper species, Pezotettix giornae, based on the surveys of 363 grasslands in a 430-km² agricultural landscape of western France. Data were analysed using geostatistics and landscape genetics based on microsatellites markers and computer simulations. Results suggested that small-scale intense dispersal allows this species to survive in intensive agricultural landscapes. A complex spatial genetic structure related to landscape and habitat characteristics was also detected. Two P. giornae genetic clusters bisected by a linear hedged farmland were inferred from clustering analyses. This linear hedged farmland was characterized by high hedgerow and grassland density as well as higher grassland temporal stability that were suspected to slow down dispersal. Computer simulations demonstrated that a linear-shaped landscape feature limiting dispersal could be detected as a barrier to gene flow and generate the observed genetic pattern. This study illustrates the relevance of using computer simulations to test hypotheses in landscape genetics studies.
Heterogeneous genetic structure in eastern North American peatmosses (Sphagnum)
<p><span><span><span>Bryophytes generally have broad geographic ranges that suggest high dispersal ability. The aim of this study was to test hypotheses about dispersal limitation, as indicated by isolation by distance (IBD), in four spore producing species of the moss genus <i>Sphagnum</i> (<i>S. carolinianum</i>, <i>S. missouricum</i>, <i>S. macrophyllum</i>, <i>S. pylaesii</i>), and to assess whether plants in the southern United States harbor high levels of unique alleles and/or other indicators of exceptional genetic diversity. IBD was detected in all four species, but regional patterns of genetic structure were very species-specific. One species, <i>S. macrophyllum</i>, exhibited differentiation between northern and southern genetic groups that appear to reflect more ancient phylogenetic diversification.</span></span></span></p>
Gudgeon fish with and without genetically determined countershading coexist in heterogeneous littoral environments of an ancient lake
<p>Countershading, characterized by a darker dorsal surface and lighter ventral surface, is common among many animals. This dorsoventral pigment polarity is often thought to be adaptive coloration for camouflage. By contrast, non-countershaded (melanistic) morphs often occur within a species due to genetic color polymorphism in terrestrial animals. However, the polymorphism with either countershaded or melanistic morphs is poorly known in wild aquatic animals. This study explored the genetic nature of diverged color morphs of a lineage of gudgeon fish (genus <i>Sarcocheilichthys</i>) in the ancient Lake Biwa, and propose this system as a novel model for testing hypotheses of functional aspects of countershading and its loss in aquatic environments. This system harbors two color morphs that have been treated taxonomically as separate species; <i>S. variegatus microoculus</i> which occurs throughout the littoral zone, and <i>S. biwaensis</i> which occurs in and around rocky areas. First, we confirmed that the divergence of dorsoventral color patterns between the two morphs is under strict genetic control at the levels of chromatophore distribution and melanin-related gene expression under common garden rearing. The former morph displayed sharp countershading coloration, whereas the latter morph exhibited a strong tendency towards its loss. The crossing results indicated that this divergence was likely controlled by a single locus in a two-allele Mendelian-inheritance pattern. Furthermore, our population genomic and genome-wide association study analyses detected no genome-wide divergence between the two morphs, except for one region near a locus that may be associated with the color divergence. Thus, these morphs are either in a state of intraspecific color polymorphism or two incipient species. Evolutionary forces underlying this polymorphism appears to be associated with heterogeneous littoral environments in this lake. Future ecological genomic research will provide insight into adaptive functions of this widespread coloration, including the eco-evolutionary drivers of its loss, in the aquatic world.</p>
FIGURE 2 in On the morphological, biological and genetic heterogeneity of the genus Orchis (Orchidaceae, Orchidinae)
FIGURE 2. Principal component analysis showing distribution of samples with 95% confidence ellipses around the group means and correlation of characters with the first two axes. Symbols refer to Table 1.
FIGURE 5 in On the morphological, biological and genetic heterogeneity of the genus Orchis (Orchidaceae, Orchidinae)
FIGURE 5. Percentages of pollinator species by insect order for subgenera Masculae and Orchis (from various sources collected by Claessens & Kleynen, 2011).
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Allen Brain Atlas
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Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
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