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Fig. 1 in Tools and Methods to Assess Field Performance Locomotion activity meter for quality assessment of mass-reared sterile male moths (Lepidoptera)

Fig. 1. An illustration of the modified Locomotion Activity Monitor set-up used for the bioassays in this study. Synthetic pheromone was puffed (2 s) from upwind to stimulate LBAM males into wing fanning. Each time a male moved through the beam array it was counted as 1 observation. Comparisons were made between pre-pheromone exposure activity and post-pheromone exposure activity for each treatment.

opencc-by-4.0Jun 2016View details →

Fig. 4 in Tools and Methods to Assess Field Performance Locomotion activity meter for quality assessment of mass-reared sterile male moths (Lepidoptera)

Fig. 4. Mean activity counts for before and afer pheromone exposure (lef), and the mean afer/before activity ratio (right), un-irradiated (0 Gy) and irradiated (300 Gy) Epiphyas postvittana males exposed to 1 of 4 levels of temperature shock (0, 1, 2, 4 h at 30 °C). Error bars are 95% confidence limits for each mean. An afer/before ratio of 1 (marked) indicates an equal level of activity before and afer pheromone exposure.

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Comparative analysis of a geometric and an adhesive righting strategy against toppling in inclined hexapedal locomotion

Animals are known to exhibit different walking behaviors in hilly habitats. For instance, cats, rats, squirrels, tree frogs, desert iguana, stick insects and desert ants were observed to lower their body height in traversing slopes, whereas mound-dwelling iguanas and wood ants tend to maintain constant walking kinematics regardless of the slope. This paper aims to understand and classify these distinct behaviors into two different strategies against toppling for climbing animals by looking into two factors, (i) the torque of the center of gravity (CoG) with respect to the critical tipping axis, and (ii) the torques of the legs, which have the potential to counterbalance the CoG-torque. Our comparative locomotion analysis on level locomotion and inclined locomotion exhibited that primarily only one of the proposed two strategies was chosen for each of our sample species, despite the fact that a combined strategy could have reduced the animal's risk to topple over even more. We found that desert ants of Cataglyphis fortis maintained their upright posture primarily through the adjustment of their CoG-torque (geometric strategy), and wood ants of the Formica rufa species group controlled their posture primarily by exerting leg-torques (adhesive strategy). We further provide hints that the geometric strategy employed by Cataglyphis could increase the risk for slipping on slopes since the leg-impulse substrate angle of Cataglyphis' hind legs were lower compared to Formica's. In contrast, the adhesion strategy employed by Formica's front legs not only decreased the risk for toppling. It also explained the steeper leg-impulse substrate angle of Formica's hind legs which should relate to more bending of the tarsal structures and therefore to more microscopic contact points potentially reducing the risk for hind leg slipping.

opencc-zeroJul 2021View details →

Figure 5 in Locomotion in terrestrial mammals: the influence of body mass, limb length and bone proportions on speed

Figure 5. Regression plots of anatomical variables to log running speed in km h-1, showing the distinct curvilinearity of some of the samples, in this case, log forelimb length in mm (a) and olecranon process/radius ratio (b). The polynomial regression model yielded a significantly better fit to the data than ordinary least squares regression lines. For equation see Table 5.

Figure 1. Phylogenetic relationships between the 76 in Locomotion in terrestrial mammals: the influence of body mass, limb length and bone proportions on speed

Figure 1. Phylogenetic relationships between the 76 species of mammals used in the study. Numbers adjacent to the nodes refer to split ages in units of millions of years. Total height of tree is 85 million years. Literature sources used in constructing the tree are Kielan-Jaworowska et al. (1979), Bennett (1980), Janis (1982), Savage & Russel (1983), Lanave et al. (1985), Shoshani (1986), Janis & Scott (1987), Wayne & O'Brien (1987), Gentry & Hooker (1988), Flynn et al. (1988), Novacek et al. (1988), Padmadisastra (1988), Prothero et al. (1988), Tassy & Shoshani (1988), Georgiadis et al. (1990), Marshall (1990), Miyamoto et al. (1990), Nowak (1991), Geffen et al. (1992), Novacek (1992a,b), Garland & Janis (1993), Wyss & Flynn (1993), Flynn (1996), Hunt (1996), Foote et al. (1999) and Penny et al. (1999).

Figure 3 in Locomotion in terrestrial mammals: the influence of body mass, limb length and bone proportions on speed

Figure 3. Regression plots of independent contrasts for fore limb parameters. Log running speed is in km h-1. a, Fore limb length in mm/3÷body mass in kg; b, radius/humerus ratio; c, metacarpus/humerus ratio; d, olecranon process length in mm/ 3÷body mass in kg. Regression lines fitted to the contrasts by means of least squares (model I) analysis.

Figure 4 in Locomotion in terrestrial mammals: the influence of body mass, limb length and bone proportions on speed

Figure 4. Regression plots of independent contrasts for hind limb parameters. Log running speed is in km h-1. a, Hind limb length in mm/3÷body mass in kg; b, metatarsus/femur ratio; c, cnemial crest height in mm/3÷body mass in kg; d, calcaneal tuber length in mm/3÷body mass in kg. Regression lines fitted to the contrasts by means of least squares (model I) analysis.

Figure 2 in Locomotion in terrestrial mammals: the influence of body mass, limb length and bone proportions on speed

Figure 2. Plots of standardized contrasts to their standard deviations. a, log forelimb length in mm; b, radius/humerus ratio; c, metacarpus/humerus ratio; d, tibia/femur ratio; e, cnemial crest height in mm/3÷body mass in kilograms; f, calcaneal tuber/metatarsus ratio.

Figure 30 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 30. Left lateral view of Anhanguera in a bird-like bipedal posture, with subhorizontal femora. The shoulder and intersyncarpal joints are in their close-packed positions, the carpometacarpal joints are supinated, and the elbow, radioulnocarpal, knuckle, and carpopteroid joints are maximally flexed. The femora are depressed by 60°. Scale bar: 500 mm.

Figure 8. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 8. A, reconstructed articular surfaces of the right elbow joint of Coloborhynchus robustus. Elements are oriented as in Fig. 7: humerus in lateral view, and radius and ulna in medial view. Scale bar: 50 mm. B, diagrammatic representation of (A), showing contact areas in the close-packed position and the joint axis. C, right humerus, radius, and ulna in the close-packed position in dorsal aspect, viewed along the joint axis. For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1.

Figure 7. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 7. A, reconstructed articular surfaces of the right shoulder joint of Coloborhynchus robustus (SMNK 1133PAL). Elements are oriented as if articulated in their close-packed position: scapulocoracoid in lateral view and humerus in medial view. Scale bar: 50 mm. B, diagrammatic representation of (A), showing contact areas in the close-packed position (shaded) and the joint axes. C, right scapulocoracoid and humerus in the close-packed position in anterior aspect, viewed along the primary axis. D, (C) in dorsal aspect, viewed along the secondary axis. For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1.

Figure 25 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 25. Ventral view of Anhanguera, with the elbow, radioulnocarpal, and knuckle joints flexed by 25° from their close-packed positions. The wingspan is 85% of the maximum. Scale bar: 500 mm.

Figure 18 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 18. Three-dimensional virtual model of Anhanguera, with all limb joints in their respective close-packed positions, except the knee, which is shown partially flexed so that the tibiotarsus is directed backwards. A, ventral view, with flight membranes. Three possible trailing edges of the cheiropatagium are shown: running from the wingtip to the distal end of the crus (solid line), the proximal end of the crus (broken line), and the hip (dotted line). Two possible leading edges of the propatagium are shown, corresponding to an anteroventral orientation of the pteroid (solid line) and a medial orientation of the pteroid (broken line – pteroid itself omitted in this case for clarity). Two possible trailing edges of the cruropatagium are shown: running from the tip of the tail to the distal end of the crus (solid line), and to the proximal end of the crus (broken line). See text for further explanation. B, anterior view, membranes omitted for clarity. For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1. Scale bar: 500 mm.

Figure 5 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 5. Relative lengths of the long bones of ten selected ornithocheirid specimens, expressed as a percentage of the ulna length. The collection of points at each value of absolute ulna length represents measurements taken from a single specimen.

Figure 2 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of an articulating element undergoing a cardinal angulation (A) and an arcuate angulation (B). During a cardinal angulation, the joint axis remains fixed and the moving bone remains in a single plane. During an arcuate angulation, the joint axis rotates and the bone moves out of the plane.

Figure 10. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 10. A, reconstructed articular surfaces of the right intersyncarpal joint of Coloborhynchus robustus. Elements are oriented as in Fig. 7: proximal syncarpal in lateral view and distal syncarpal in medial view. Scale bar: 50 mm. B, diagrammatic representation of (A), showing contact areas in the close-packed position and the joint axis. C, right radius, ulna, syncarpals, and wing metacarpal in their respective close-packed positions in posterodorsal aspect, viewed along the joint axis. For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1.

Figure 29 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 29. Dorsal (A), anterior (B), and left lateral (C) views of Anhanguera in an upright bipedal stance. The humeri are retracted by 65°, requiring a maximal supination of 50°, and the other arm joints are maximally flexed.

Figure 13. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 13. A, reconstructed articular surfaces of the right carpopteroid joint of Coloborhynchus robustus. Elements are oriented as in Fig. 7: medial carpal in anterior view and pteroid in posterior view. Scale bar: 25 mm. B, Diagrammatic representation of (A), showing contact areas in the close-packed position and the joint axis. The axis rotates with respect to the medial carpal during angulation of the pteroid, and is indicated at maximum extension (ext) and maximum flexion (flex). For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1.

Figure 1. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 1. A pair of articulating elements with a single joint axis, set up so that the axis runs perpendicular to the viewing plane, and is perceived as a point – the centre of rotation (CR). The proximal element is fixed and has a single marker O, defining the origin of an arbitrary coordinate system. The distal element is mobile and bears two markers A and B, denoted A′ and B′ after a rotation of magnitude Q. The positions of the markers before and after angulation in the arbitrary coordinate system can be used to determine the position vector c of the CR, and the magnitude of rotation Q. See text for details.

Figure 26 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 26. Left lateral view of Anhanguera in a possible landing configuration. The body is pitched up by 20°, the femur is supinated by 30° and depressed by 30°, and the pteroid is depressed by 30°. The geometric angle of attack of the wing section is 40°.