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Fig. 7 in Diversity and ecological relationships of Cestoda and Monogenoidea parasites of freshwater stingrays (Myliobatiformes, Potamotrygonidae), in the upper Paran´a River, Brazil

Fig. 7. Morphology of Rhinebothroides glandularis. Morphology of scolex (A); partial strobila (B); Mature proglottid (C); Gravid proglottid (D). Abbreviations: B = bothridia; Gc = gland cells; O = ovary; S = scolex; T = testes, and U = uterus.

Fig. 5 in Diversity and ecological relationships of Cestoda and Monogenoidea parasites of freshwater stingrays (Myliobatiformes, Potamotrygonidae), in the upper Paran´a River, Brazil

Fig. 5. Morphology of Potamotrygonocotyle tsalickisi. Whole specimen (a); haptor (b and c), and male copulatory organ (d and e). Abbreviations: A = anchor; DhAsA = anterior dorsal haptoral accessory structure; DhAsP = posterior dorsal haptoral accessory structure; H = haptor; HCL = haptor central loculi; HPL = haptor peripheral loculi; HS = haptoral septa; MCo = male copulatory organ, and MCoA = male copulatory organ aperture.

Fig. 3 in Diversity and ecological relationships of Cestoda and Monogenoidea parasites of freshwater stingrays (Myliobatiformes, Potamotrygonidae), in the upper Paran´a River, Brazil

Fig. 3. Rarefaction and extrapolation of component community richness and meta-community richness of helminths species in potamotrygonids from the upper Parana´River. Sample-size-based diversity accumulation curves (with 95% confidence intervals of lower and upper limits) using hosts as unit of sampling and Hill numbers. Diversity metrics were species richness (0), Shannon Index (1) and Simpson Index (2) values.

Fig. 2 in Diversity and ecological relationships of Cestoda and Monogenoidea parasites of freshwater stingrays (Myliobatiformes, Potamotrygonidae), in the upper Paran´a River, Brazil

Fig. 2. Component community richness and meta-community richness of helminths species in potamotrygonids from the upper Paran´a River. Results of diversity t-test suggest a statistically significant difference between sites (S1 <S2, t = – 40.00; p = <0.001; d = 3.76; β = 0.99) and between host (Potamotrygon amandae <Potamotrygon falkneri, t = – 29.68; p = <0.001; d = 0.52; β = 0.21). Mean and Median values are indicated by black square and horizontal black line respectively.

Fig. 4 in Diversity and ecological relationships of Cestoda and Monogenoidea parasites of freshwater stingrays (Myliobatiformes, Potamotrygonidae), in the upper Paran´a River, Brazil

Fig. 4. Relationship of infracommunity abundance of helminths inferred by mixed generalized linear modeling (GLMM) in potamotrygonids of the upper Parana´River. Abundance vs. (a) disc length (DL), (b) gonadal developmental stages (immature = 0, early development = 1, advanced development = 2, mature = 3 and rest = 4), (c) condition factor and (d) sex (males or females) (e) Host species (i.e. Potamotrygon amandae or Potamotrygon falkneri). and collection sites (S1 or S2) are random variables.

opencc-by-4.0Apr 2022View details →

Fig. 1 in Understanding effects of floral products on bee parasites: Mechanisms, synergism, and ecological complexity

Fig. 1. Floral products may reduce bee disease via multiple mechanisms, including both direct and host-mediated effects; the influence of these effects on populationlevel parasite prevalence and host-parasite population dynamics will depend on environmental context. Numbers in diagram refer to corresponding sections of the text where topics are discussed.

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2010View details →

Figure 2 in Fly parasitism in Papuan frogs, with a discussion of ecological factors influencing evolution of life-history differences

Figure 2. Regressions of weight versus snout–vent length (SV) for male Rana supragrisea. Larger frogs infested with fly larvae (closed squares, dashed line) exhibit lower weights compared to uninfested frogs (open circles, solid line), but this difference in regressions is determined solely by the largest infested specimen.

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Effect of host-switching on the ecological and evolutionary patterns of parasites

Speciation via host-switching is a macroevolutionary process that emerges from a microevolutionary dynamic where individual parasites switch hosts, establish a new association, and reduce reproductive contact with the original parasite lineage. Phylogenetic distance and geographic distribution of the hosts have been shown to be determinants of the capacity and opportunity of the parasite to change hosts. Although speciation via host-switching has been reported in many host-parasite systems, its dynamic on the individual, population and community levels is poorly understood. Here we propose a theoretical model to simulate parasite evolution considering host-switching events on the microevolutionary scale, taking into account the macroevolutionary history of the hosts, to evaluate how host-switching can affect ecological and evolutionary patterns of parasites in empirical communities at regional and local scales. In the model, parasite individuals can switch hosts under variable intensity and have their evolution driven by mutation and genetic drift. Mating is sexual and only individuals that are sufficiently similar can produce offspring. We assumed that parasite evolution occurs at the same evolutionary time scale as their hosts and that the intensity of host-switching decreases as the host species differentiate. Ecological and evolutionary patterns were characterised by the turnover of parasite species among host species, and parasite evolutionary tree imbalance respectively. We found a range of host-switching intensity that reproduces ecological and evolutionary patterns observed in empirical communities. Our results showed that turnover decreased as host-switching intensity increased, with low variation among the model replications. On the other hand, tree imbalance showed wide variation and non-monotonic tendency. We concluded that tree imbalance was sensitive to stochastic events, whereas turnover may be a good indicator of host-switching. We found that local communities corresponded to higher host-switching intensity when compared to regional communities, highlighting that spatial scale is a limitation for host-switching.

opencc-zeroMay 2023View details →

Fig. 3 in Phylogeny of Maculinea blues (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) based on morphological and ecological characters: evolution of parasitic myrmecophily

Fig. 3. One of the four equally most parsimonious trees (length 306, CI 0.33, RI 0.63; chosen at random: individual source trees differ only in position of terminals within Phengaris, M. teleius and M. alcon group: see Fig. 2), with character states that support individual clades. Nonhomoplastic autapomorphies are black, homoplastic apomorphies white. Numbers above branches refer to characters, numbers below branches to character states (see Appendix 1 for character descriptions).

Fig. 4 in Phylogeny of Maculinea blues (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) based on morphological and ecological characters: evolution of parasitic myrmecophily

Fig. 4. Evolution of the life history traits of Maculinea butterflies and their relatives. Only the species for which states of all relevant characters are reliably well-known are included (see Table 1), but the overall topology of the tree including all terminals (Figs 2 & 3) is preserved. (A) Myrmecophily. M. nausithous is optimized as a modified predatory species (see ''Evolution of life histories''). (B) Host plants and habitat associations. Rosids and asterids are two well-supported clades of eudicot angiosperm plants (see Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2003): Fabaceae and Rosaceae are included in the former, Lamiaceae, Gentianaceae, and Campanulaceae in the latter. In some cases, character-state optimization is derived from the all-species tree (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1 in Phylogeny of Maculinea blues (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) based on morphological and ecological characters: evolution of parasitic myrmecophily

Fig. 1. System of coding of wing pattern traits used in the phylogenetic study of Maculinea and their relatives.

Fig. 2 in Phylogeny of Maculinea blues (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) based on morphological and ecological characters: evolution of parasitic myrmecophily

Fig. 2. Strict consensus of the four equally most parsimonious trees (length 306, CI 0.33, RI 0.63) showing proposed phylogenetic relationships within the ''Glaucopsyche-section'' of Lycaenidae: Polyommatini. Bootstrap and Bremer support are shown above and below the nodes, respectively.

publicNov 2023View details →

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Effect of host-switching on the ecological and evolutionary patterns of parasites

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opencc-zeroAug 2020View details →

Extending the ecology of fear: Parasite-mediated sexual selection drives host response to parasites

The 'ecology of fear' describes the negative effects natural enemies have on potential victims even when those victims are not consumed or infected. Although recent work has demonstrated parasites have non-consumptive effects (NCE) on potential hosts, how these effects vary within host populations is not well understood. We investigated how NCE vary based on host risk of infection and relative cost of infection by measuring the metabolic rate (MR) of naive Drosophila nigrospiracula exposed to an ectoparasite, Macrocheles subbadius. We tested two mutually exclusive hypotheses: 1) asymmetrical costs of infection drive adaptions for stronger responses to parasite exposure; or 2) asymmetrical risks of infection drive adaptions for stronger responses to parasite exposure. In this system, male flies have higher costs of infection relative to female flies due to parasite-mediated sexual selection; similarly, virgin females experience higher costs of infection relative to mated females. Risk of infection also varies among flies because mites preferentially infect female flies over males, and mites preferentially infect mated females over virgin females. Our results were compatible with the hypothesis that costs of infection drive the strength of response to mite risk. Female flies responded to parasite exposure with a 15.1% increase in MR, while exposed males showed a stronger response with a 31.3% increase in MR. Mated females increased their MR by 34.8% during mite exposure whereas virgin females experienced an increase of 61.2%. Our findings suggest that NCE of parasites can vary based on state-dependent costs of infection.

opencc-zeroDec 2020View details →

Ecology directs host-parasite coevolutionary trajectories across Daphnia-microparasite populations

Host-parasite interactions often fuel coevolutionary change. However, parasitism is one of a myriad of possible ecological interactions in nature. Biotic (e.g., predation) and abiotic (e.g., temperature) variation can amplify or dilute parasitism as a selective force on hosts and parasites, driving population variation in (co)evolutionary trajectories. We dissected the relationships between wider ecology and coevolutionary trajectory using 16 ecologically complex Daphnia magna-Pasteuria ramosa ponds seeded with an identical starting host (Daphnia) and parasite (Pasteuria) population. We show, using a time-shift experiment and outdoor population data, how multivariate biotic and abiotic ecological differences between ponds caused coevolutionary divergence. Wider ecology drove variation in host evolution of resistance, but not parasite infectivity; parasites subsequently coevolved in response to the changing complement of host genotypes, such that parasites adapted to historically resistant host genotypes. Parasitism was a stronger interaction for the parasite than for its host, likely because the host is the principal environment and selective force, whereas for hosts, parasite-mediated selection is one of many sources of selection. Our findings reveal the mechanisms through which wider ecology creates coevolutionary hotspots and coldspots in biologically realistic arenas of host-parasite interaction, and sheds light on how the ecological theatre can affect the (co)evolutionary play.

opencc-zeroJun 2021View details →

Genotypic variation in an ecologically important parasite is associated with host species, lake, and spore size

Genetic variation in parasites has important consequences for host-parasite interactions. Prior studies of the ecologically important parasite Metschnikowia bicuspidata have suggested low genetic variation in the species. Here, we collected M. bicuspidata from two host species (Daphnia dentifera and Ceriodaphnia dubia) and two regions (Michigan and Indiana, USA). Within a lake, outbreaks tended to occur in one host species but not the other. Using microsatellite markers, we identified six parasite genotypes grouped within three distinct clades, one of which was rare. Of the two main clades, one was generally associated with D. dentifera, with lakes in both regions containing a single genotype. The other M. bicuspidata clade was mainly associated with C. dubia, with a different genotype dominating in each region. Despite these associations, both D. dentifera- and C. dubia-associated genotypes were found infecting both hosts in lakes. However, in lab experiments, the D. dentifera-associated genotype infected both D. dentifera and C. dubia, but the C. dubia-associated genotype, which had spores that were approximately 30% smaller, did not infect D. dentifera. We hypothesize that variation in spore size might help explain patterns of cross-species transmission. Future studies exploring the causes and consequences of variation in spore size may help explain patterns of infection and the maintenance of genotypic diversity in this ecologically important system.

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Fig. 6. Heavily infected Ephelota gigantea. Arrow shows a parasite with a stalk and a in Morphological, Developmental, and Ecological Characteristics of the Suctorian Ciliate Ephelota gigantea (Ciliophora, Phyllopharyngea, Ephelotidae) Found on Cultured Wakame Seaweed in Northeastern Japan

Fig. 6. Heavily infected Ephelota gigantea. Arrow shows a parasite with a stalk and a tentacle.

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2015View details →

opencc-zeroOct 2022View details →

Natural history and ecological effects on the establishment and fate of Florida carpenter ant cadavers infected by the parasitic-manipulator Ophiocordyceps camponoti-floridani

1. Ophiocordyceps fungi manipulate the behavior of their ant hosts to produce a summit disease phenotype, thereby establishing infected ant cadavers onto vegetation at elevated positions suitable for fungal growth and transmission. Multiple environmental and ecological factors have been proposed to shape the timing, positioning, and outcome of these manipulations. 2. We conducted a long-term field study of Ophiocordyceps camponoti-floridani infections of Camponotus floridanus ants – the Florida zombie ants. We propose and refine hypotheses on the factors that shape infection outcomes by tracking the occurrence of fungal growth from hundreds of ant cadavers. We modeled and report these data in relation to weather, light, vegetation, and attack by mycoparasites. 3. We investigated environmental factors that could affect the occurrence and location of newly manipulated ant cadavers. New cadavers were positively correlated with epiphytic Tillandsia bromeliads, canopy openness, and weather conditions (an interactive effect of temperature, humidity, and precipitation) with an increased occurrence during the sub-tropical summer. We further suggest that incident light at the individual cadaver level may reflect microhabitat choice by manipulated ants or selective pressure on cadaver maintenance for conditions improving fungal survival. 4. We also sought to connect fungal fitness to environmental conditions. Continued fungal development of reproductive structures and putative transmission increased with moist weather conditions (interaction of humidity and precipitation) and canopy openness, while being reduced by attack by mycoparasites. Moreover, under the most open canopy conditions, we found an atypical Ophiocordyceps growth morphology that could represent a plastic response to conditions influenced by high light levels. 5. Taken together, we explore general trends and the effects of various ecological conditions on host and parasite disease outcomes in the Florida zombie ant system. These insights from the field can be used to inform experimental laboratory setups that directly test the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on fungus-ant interactions or aim to uncover underlying molecular mechanisms.

opencc-zeroJan 2023View details →

Vegetation cover and biodiversity reduce parasite infection in wild hosts across ecological levels and scales

Land use changes and biodiversity loss critically disrupt ecosystem functioning and are major drivers of infectious disease outbreaks. Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease, is a multi-host parasite whose epidemiology has changed due to the expansion of anthropogenic activities over natural areas. We aimed to understand the ecological processes increasing parasite prevalence at the individual, the community and the landscape levels using the largest database on small mammal infection by T. cruzi in Brazil. We applied machine learning techniques and structural equation models to show that allometric traits and the relative abundance of rodents in the community were important predictors of infection risk, followed by variables associated with the landscape environmental quality. Natural vegetation cover change and the taxonomic and functional dimensions of biodiversity indirectly reduced infection through its effect on the abundance distribution and composition of host communities. According to our findings, approaches to biodiversity conservation and restoration based on the integration of social inclusion and human welfare would contribute to regulating the prevalence of T. cruzi in wild hosts, which may reduce overall transmission risk.