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1,363 results for “phenotypic data”
Data from: Linking innate immunogenetic variation with phenotypic traits in a wild population of tree swallows, Tachycineta bicolor
Unravelling the genetic basis of phenotypic variation among individuals is an important step in our understanding of evolution. Recent studies of innate immune genes, such as β -defensins, revealed that these genes had high levels of polymorphism. However, researchers have yet to quantify the effects of such variability on immune responses and fitness-related traits in wild populations. In this study, we assessed how the variability at six avian β -defensin (AvBD) genes was linked to an immune function and reproductive success in adult tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor). We investigated the links between genetic variations using single nucleotide polymorphisms at AvBD genes, immune function as the bacterial killing ability (BKA) and fledging success. We assessed how female immunogenetics were linked to the presence of eggshell bacteria in their clutches and hatching success. We found weak associations between the presence of AvBD genes, BKA and eggshell bacteria. Our results suggested that homozygosity at some loci may be advantageous for defence against bacteria. Variability at β -defensin genes was not related to either hatching or fledging success. BKA of parents was positively linked with fledging success. More studies are needed to assess whether or not β -defensin genes are significantly affecting fitness-related traits in wild populations.
Data from: Developmental instability is genetically correlated with phenotypic plasticity, constraining heritability, and fitness
Although adaptive plasticity would seem always to be favored by selection, it occurs less often than expected. This lack of ubiquity suggests that there must be trade-offs, costs, or limitations associated with plasticity. Yet, few costs have been found. We explore one type of limitation, a correlation between plasticity and developmental instability, and use quantitative genetic theory to show why one should expect a genetic correlation. We test that hypothesis using the Landsberg erecta × Cape Verde Islands recombinant inbred lines (RILs) of Arabidopsis thaliana. RILs were grown at four different nitrogen (N) supply levels that span the range of N availabilities previously documented in North American field populations. We found a significant multivariate relationship between the cross-environment trait plasticity and the within-environment, within-RIL developmental instability across 13 traits. This genetic covariation between plasticity and developmental instability has two costs. First, theory predicts diminished fitness for highly plastic lines under stabilizing selection, because their developmental instability and variance around the optimum phenotype will be greater compared to nonplastic genotypes. Second, empirically the most plastic traits exhibited heritabilities reduced by 57% on average compared to nonplastic traits. This demonstration of potential costs in inclusive fitness and heritability provoke a rethinking of the evolutionary role of plasticity.
Data from: Genome-wide association mapping of phenotypic traits subject to a range of intensities of natural selection in Timema cristinae
The genetic architecture of adaptive traits can reflect the evolutionary history of populations and also shape divergence among populations. Despite this central role in evolution, relatively little is known regarding the genetic architecture of adaptive traits in nature, particularly for traits subject to known selection intensities. Here we quantitatively describe the genetic architecture of traits that are subject to known intensities of differential selection between host plant species in Timema cristinae stick insects. Specifically, we used phenotypic measurements of 10 traits and 211,004 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to conduct multilocus genome-wide association mapping. We identified a modest number of SNPs that were associated with traits and sometimes explained a large proportion of trait variation. These SNPs varied in their strength of association with traits, and both major and minor effect loci were discovered. However, we found no relationship between variation in levels of divergence among traits in nature and variation in parameters describing the genetic architecture of those same traits. Our results provide a first step toward identifying loci underlying adaptation in T. cristinae. Future studies will examine the genomic location, population differentiation, and response to selection of the trait-associated SNPs described here.
Data from: Shifting barriers and phenotypic diversification by hybridisation
The establishment of hybrid taxa relies on reproductive isolation from the parental forms, typically achieved by ecological differentiation. Here, we present an alternative mechanism, in which shifts in the strength and location of dispersal barriers facilitate diversification by hybridisation. Our case study concerns the highly diverse, stenotopic rock-dwelling cichlids of the African Great Lakes, many of which display geographic colour pattern variation. The littoral habitat of these fish has repeatedly been restructured in the course of ancient lake level fluctuations. Genetic data and an experimental cross support the hybrid origin of a distinct yellow-coloured variant of Tropheus moorii from ancient admixture between two allopatric, red and bluish variants. Deficient assortative mating preferences imply that reproductive isolation continues to be contingent on geographic separation. Linking paleolimnological data with the establishment of the hybrid variant, we sketch a selectively neutral diversification process governed solely by rearrangements of dispersal barriers.
Data from: How populations differentiate despite gene flow: sexual and natural selection drive phenotypic divergence within a land fish, the Pacific leaping blenny
Background: Divergence between populations in reproductively important features is often vital for speciation. Many studies attempt to identify the cause of population differentiation in phenotype through the study of a specific selection pressure. Holistic studies that consider the interaction of several contrasting forms of selection are more rare. Most studies also fail to consider the history of connectivity among populations and the potential for genetic drift or gene flow to facilitate or limit phenotypic divergence. We examined the interacting effects of natural selection, sexual selection and the history of connectivity on phenotypic differentiation among five populations of the Pacific leaping blenny (Alticus arnoldorum), a land fish endemic to the island of Guam. Results: We found key differences among populations in two male ornaments—the size of a prominent head crest and conspicuousness of a coloured dorsal fin—that reflected a trade-off between the intensity of sexual selection (male biased sex ratios) and natural selection (exposure to predators). This differentiation in ornamentation has occurred despite evidence suggesting extensive gene flow among populations, which implies that the change in ornament expression has been recent (and potentially plastic). Conclusions: Our study provides an early snapshot of divergence in reproductively important features that, regardless of whether it reflects genetic or plastic changes in phenotype, could ultimately form a reproductive barrier among populations.
Data from: Phenotypic landscapes: phenological patterns in wild and cultivated barley
Phenotypic variation in natural populations is the outcome of the joint effects of environmentally induced adaptations and neutral processes on the genetic architecture of quantitative traits. In this study we examined the role of adaptation in shaping wild barley phenotypic variation along different environmental gradients. Detailed phenotyping of 164 wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) accessions from Israel (of the Barley1K collection), and 18 cultivated barley (H. vulgare) varieties, was conducted in common garden field trials. Cluster analysis based on phenotypic data indicated that wild barley in this region can be differentiated into three ecotypes in accordance with their ecogeographic distribution: north, coast, and desert. Population differentiation (Qst) for each trait was estimated using a hierarchical Bayesian model and compared to neutral differentiation (Fst) based on 42 microsatellite markers. This analysis indicated that the three clusters diverged in morphological but not in reproductive characteristics. To address the issue of phenotypic variation along environmental gradients, climatic and soil gradients were compared with each of the measured traits given the geographical distance between sampling sites using a partial Mantel test. Flowering time and plant growth were found to be differentially correlated with climatic and soil characteristic gradients, respectively. The H. vulgare varieties were superior to the H. spontaneum accessions in yield components yet resembled the Mediterranean types in vegetative characteristics and flowering time, which may indicate the geographic origin of domesticated barley.
Data from: Integration of anatomy ontologies and evo-devo using structured Markov models suggests a new framework for modeling discrete phenotypic traits
Modeling discrete phenotypic traits for either ancestral character state reconstruction or morphology-based phylogenetic inference suffers from ambiguities of character coding, homology assessment, dependencies, and selection of adequate models. These drawbacks occur because trait evolution is driven by two key processes – hierarchical and hidden – which are not accommodated simultaneously by the available phylogenetic methods. The hierarchical process refers to the dependencies between anatomical body parts, while the hidden process refers to the evolution of gene regulatory networks underlying trait development. Herein, I demonstrate that these processes can be efficiently modeled using structured Markov models equipped with hidden states, which resolves the majority of the problems associated with discrete traits. Integration of structured Markov models with anatomy ontologies can adequately incorporate the hierarchical dependencies, while the use of the hidden states accommodates hidden evolution of gene regulatory networks and substitution rate heterogeneity. I assess the new models using simulations and theoretical synthesis. The new approach solves the long-standing "tail color problem," in which the trait is scored for species with tails of different colors or no tails. It also presents a previously unknown issue called the "two-scientist paradox," in which the nature of coding the trait and the hidden processes driving the trait's evolution are confounded; failing to account for the hidden process may result in a bias, which can be avoided by using hidden state models. All this provides a clear guideline for coding traits into characters. This paper gives practical examples of using the new framework for phylogenetic inference and comparative analysis.
Data from: A phenotype-genotype codon model for detecting adaptive evolution
A central objective in biology is to link adaptive evolution in a gene to structural and/or functional phenotypic novelties. Yet most analytic methods make inferences mainly from either phenotypic data or genetic data alone. A small number of models have been developed to infer correlations between the rate of molecular evolution and changes in a discrete or continuous life history trait. But such correlations are not necessarily evidence of adaptation. Here we present a novel approach called the phenotype-genotype branch-site model (PG-BSM) designed to detect evidence of adaptive codon evolution associated with discrete-state phenotype evolution. An episode of adaptation is inferred under standard codon substitution models when there is evidence of positive selection in the form of an elevation in the nonsynonymous-to-synonymous rate ratio ω to a value ω > 1. As it is becoming increasingly clear that ω > 1 can occur without adaptation, the PG-BSM was formulated to infer an instance of adaptive evolution without appealing to evidence of positive selection. The null model makes use of a covarion-like component to account for general heterotachy (i.e., random changes in the evolutionary rate at a site over time). The alternative model employs samples of the phenotypic evolutionary history to test for phenomenological patterns of heterotachy consistent with specific mechanisms of molecular adaptation. These include (i) a persistent increase/decrease in ω at a site following a change in phenotype (the pattern) consistent with an increase/decrease in the functional importance of the site (the mechanism); and (ii) a transient increase in ω at a site along a branch over which the phenotype changed (the pattern) consistent with a change in the site's optimal amino acid (the mechanism). Rejection of the null is followed by post hoc analyses to identify sites with strongest evidence for adaptation in association with changes in the phenotype as well as the most likely evolutionary history of the phenotype. Simulation studies based on a novel method for generating mechanistically realistic signatures of molecular adaptation show that the PG-BSM has good statistical properties. Analyses of three real alignments show that site patterns identified post hoc are consistent with the specific mechanisms of adaptation included in the alternate model. Further simulation studies show that the covarion-like component of the PG-BSM plays a crucial role in mitigating recently discovered statistical pathologies associated with confounding by accounting for heterotachy-by-any-means.
Data from: Is evolution predictable? quantitative genetics under complex genotype-phenotype maps
<p>A fundamental aim of post-genomic 21st century biology is to understand the genotype-phenotype map (GPM) or how specific genetic variation relates to specific phenotypic variation. Quantitative genetics approximates such maps using linear models, and has developed methods to predict the response to selection in a population. The other major field of research concerned with the GPM, developmental evolutionary biology or evo-devo, has found the GPM to be highly nonlinear and complex. Here we quantify how the predictions of quantitative genetics are affected by the complex, nonlinear maps found in developmental biology. We found that the disagreements between predicted and observed responses to selection are common, roughly in a third of generations, systematic and due to nonlinear nature of the genotype-phenotype map. They occur at all time scales, even from one generation to the next. Our results are a step towards integrating the fields studying the GPM.</p>
Data from: Untargeted metabolic profiling reveals geography as the strongest predictor of metabolic phenotypes of a cosmopolitan weed
Plants produce a multitude of metabolites that contribute to their fitness and survival, and play a role in local adaptation to environmental conditions. The effects of environmental variation is particularly well studied within the genus Plantago, however, previous studies have largely focused on targeting specific metabolites. Studies exploring metabolome wide changes are lacking, and the effects of natural environmental variation and herbivory on the metabolomes of plants growing in situ remain unknown. An untargeted metabolomic approach using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, coupled with variation partitioning, general linear mixed modelling, and network analysis was used to detect differences in metabolic phenotypes of Plantago major in fifteen natural populations across Denmark. Geographic region, distance, habitat type, phenological stage, soil parameters, light levels, and leaf area, were investigated for their relative contributions to explaining differences in foliar metabolomes. Herbivory effects were further investigated by comparing metabolomes from damaged and undamaged leaves from each plant. Geographic region explained the greatest number of significant metabolic differences. Soil pH had the second largest effect, followed by habitat and leaf area, whilst phenological stage had no effect. No evidence of the induction of metabolic features was found between leaves damaged by herbivores compared to undamaged leaves on the same plant. Differences in metabolic phenotypes explained by geographic factors are attributed to genotypic variation and/or unmeasured environmental factors that differ at the regional level in Denmark. A small number of specialised features in the metabolome may be involved in facilitating the success of a widespread species such as Plantago major into such wide range of environmental conditions, though overall resilience in the metabolome was found in response to environmental parameters tested. Untargeted metabolomic approaches have great potential to improve our understanding of how specialised plant metabolites respond to environmental change and assist in adaptation to local conditions.
Data from: Crowds replicate performance of scientific experts scoring phylogenetic matrices of phenotypes
Scientists building the Tree of Life face an overwhelming challenge to categorize phenotypes (e.g., anatomy, physiology) from millions of living and fossil species. This biodiversity challenge far outstrips the capacities of trained scientific experts. Here we explore whether crowdsourcing can be used to collect matrix data on a large scale with the participation of the non-expert students, or "citizen scientists." Crowdsourcing, or data collection by non-experts, frequently via the internet, has enabled scientists to tackle some large-scale data collection challenges too massive for individuals or scientific teams alone. The quality of work by non-expert crowds is, however, often questioned and little data has been collected on how such crowds perform on complex tasks such as phylogenetic character coding. We studied a crowd of over 600 non-experts, and found that they could use images to identify anatomical similarity (hypotheses of homology) with an average accuracy of 82% compared to scores provided by experts in the field. This performance pattern held across the Tree of Life, from protists to vertebrates. We introduce a procedure that predicts the difficulty of each character and that can be used to assign harder characters to experts and easier characters to a non-expert crowd for scoring. We test this procedure in a controlled experiment comparing crowd scores to those of experts and show that crowds can produce matrices with over 90% of cells scored correctly while reducing the number of cells to be scored by experts by 50%. Preparation time, including image collection and processing, for a crowdsourcing experiment is significant, and does not currently save time of scientific experts overall. However, if innovations in automation or robotics can reduce such effort, then large-scale implementation of our method could greatly increase the collective scientific knowledge of species phenotypes for phylogenetic tree building. For the field of crowdsourcing, we provide a rare study with ground truth, or an experimental control that many studies lack, and contribute new methods on how to coordinate the work of experts and non-experts. We show that there are important instances in which crowd consensus is not a good proxy for correctness.
Data from: Experimental studies of adaptation in Clarkia xantiana. III. Phenotypic selection across a subspecies border
Sister taxa with distinct phenotypes often occupy contrasting environments in parapatric ranges, yet we generally do not know whether trait divergence reflects spatially-varying selection. We conducted a reciprocal transplant experiment to test whether selection favors "native phenotypes" in two subspecies of Clarkia xantiana (Onagraceae), an annual plant in California. For four quantitative traits that differ between subspecies, we estimated phenotypic selection in subspecies' exclusive ranges and their contact zone in two consecutive years. We predicted that in the arid, pollinator-scarce eastern region, selection favors phenotypes of the native subspecies parviflora: small leaves, slow leaf growth, early flowering, and diminutive flowers. In the wetter, pollinator-rich, western range of subspecies xantiana, we expected selection for opposite phenotypes. We investigated pollinator contributions to selection by comparing naturally-pollinated and pollen-supplemented individuals. For reproductive traits and for subspecies xantiana, selection generally matched expectations. The contact zone sometimes showed distinctive selection, and in ssp. parviflora selection sometimes favored non-native phenotypes. Pollinators influenced selection on flowering time but not on flower size. Little temporal variation in selection occurred, possibly because of plastic trait responses across years. Though there were exceptions and some causes of selection remain obscure, phenotypic differentiation between subspecies appears to reflect spatially variable selection.
Data from: Local selection modifies phenotypic divergence among Rana temporaria populations in the presence of gene flow
In ectotherms, variation in life-history traits among populations is common and suggests local adaptation. However, geographic variation itself is not a proof for local adaptation, since genetic drift and gene flow may also shape patterns of quantitative variation. We studied local and regional variation in means and phenotypic plasticity of larval life history traits in the common frog Rana temporaria using six populations from central Sweden, breeding in either open canopy or partially closed canopy ponds. To separate local adaptation from genetic drift we compared differentiation in quantitative genetic traits (QST) obtained from a common garden experiment with differentiation in presumably neutral microsatellite markers (FST). We found that R. temporaria populations differ in means and plasticities of life-history traits in different temperatures at local, and in Fst at regional scale. Comparisons of differentiation in quantitative traits and in molecular markers suggested that natural selection was responsible for the divergence in growth and development rates as well as in temperature-induced plasticity, indicating local adaptation. However, at low temperature the role of genetic drift could not be separated from selection. Phenotypes were correlated with forest canopy closure but not with geographical or genetic distance. These results indicate that local adaptation can evolve in the presence of ongoing gene flow among populations, and that natural selection is strong in this system.
Data from: Gene coexpression networks reveal key drivers of phenotypic divergence in lake whitefish
BACKGROUND: A functional understanding of processes involved in adaptive divergence is one of the awaiting opportunities afforded by high throughput transcriptomic technologies. Functional analysis of co-expressed genes has succeeded in the biomedical field in identifying key drivers of disease pathways. However, in ecology and evolutionary biology, functional interpretation of transcriptomic data is still limited. RESULTS: Here we used Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) to identify modules of co-expressed genes in muscle and brain tissue of a lake whitefish backcross progeny. Modules were connected to gradients of known adaptive traits involved in the ecological speciation process between benthic and limnetic ecotypes. Key drivers, i.e. hub genes of functional modules related to reproduction, growth, and behavior were identified, and module preservation was assessed in natural populations. Using this approach, we identified modules of co-expressed genes involved in phenotypic divergence and their key drivers, and further identified a module part specifically rewired in the backcross progeny. CONCLUSIONS: Functional analysis of transcriptomic data can significantly contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms underlying ecological speciation. Our findings point to BMP and Calcium signaling as common pathways involved in coordinated evolution of trophic behavior, trophic morphology (gill rakers), and reproduction. Results also point to pathways implicating hemoglobins and constitutive stress response (HSP70) governing growth in lake whitefish.
Data from: The alignment between phenotypic plasticity, the major axis of genetic variation and the response to selection
Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce more than one phenotype in order to match the environment. Recent theory proposes that the major axis of genetic variation in a phenotypically plastic population can align with the direction of selection. Therefore, theory predicts that plasticity directly aids adaptation by increasing genetic variation in the direction favoured by selection and reflected in plasticity. We evaluated this theory in the freshwater crustacean Daphnia pulex, facing predation risk from two contrasting size-selective predators. We estimated plasticity in several life-history traits, the G matrix of these traits, the selection gradients on reproduction and survival, and the predicted responses to selection. Using these data, we tested whether the genetic lines of least resistance and the predicted response to selection aligned with plasticity. We found predator environment-specific G matrices, but shared genetic architecture across environments resulted in more constraint in the G matrix than in the plasticity of the traits, sometimes preventing alignment of the two. However, as the importance of survival selection increased, the difference between environments in their predicted response to selection increased and resulted in closer alignment between the plasticity and the predicted selection response. Therefore, plasticity may indeed aid adaptation to new environments.
Data from: Spatial and temporal drivers of phenotypic diversity in polymorphic snakes
Color polymorphism in natural populations presents an ideal opportunity to study the evolutionary drivers of phenotypic diversity. Systems with striking spatial, temporal, and qualitative variation in color can be leveraged to study the mechanisms promoting the distribution of different types of variation in nature. We used the highly polymorphic ground snake (Sonora semiannulata), a putative coral snake mimic with both cryptic and conspicuous morphs, to compare patterns of neutral genetic variation and variation over space and time in color polymorphism to investigate the mechanistic drivers of phenotypic variation across scales. We found that strong selection promotes color polymorphism across spatial and temporal scales, with morph frequencies differing markedly between juvenile and adult age classes within a single population, oscillating over time within multiple populations, and varying drastically over the landscape despite minimal population genetic structure. However, we found no evidence that conspicuousness of morphs was related to which color pattern was favored by selection or to any geographic factors, including sympatry with coral snakes. We suggest that complex patterns of phenotypic variation in polymorphic systems may be a fundamental outcome of the conspicuousness of morphs and that explicit tests of temporal and geographic variation are critical to the interpretation of conspicuousness and mimicry.
Data from: Disentangling the role of phenotypic plasticity and genetic divergence in contemporary ecotype formation during a biological invasion
The occurrence of contemporary ecotype formation through adaptive divergence of populations within the range of an invasive species typically requires standing genetic variation but can be facilitated by phenotypic plasticity. The relative contributions of both of these to adaptive trait differentiation have rarely been simultaneously quantified in recently diverging vertebrate populations. Here we study a case of intraspecific divergence into distinct lake and stream ecotypes of threespine stickleback that evolved in the past 140 years within the invasive range in Switzerland. Using a controlled laboratory experiment with full-sib crosses and treatments mimicking a key feature of ecotypic niche divergence, we test if the phenotypic divergence that we observe in the wild results from phenotypic plasticity or divergent genetic predisposition. Our experimental groups show qualitatively similar phenotypic divergence as those observed among wild adults. The relative contribution of plasticity and divergent genetic predisposition differs among the traits studied, with traits related to the biomechanics of feeding showing a stronger genetic predisposition, whereas traits related to locomotion are mainly plastic. These results implicate that phenotypic plasticity and standing genetic variation interacted during contemporary ecotype formation in this case.
Data from: Decoupling of genetic and phenotypic divergence in a headwater landscape
In stream organisms, the landscape affecting intraspecific genetic and phenotypic divergence is comprised of two fundamental components: the stream network and terrestrial matrix. These components are known to differentially influence genetic structure in stream species, but, to our knowledge, no study has compared their effects on genetic and phenotypic divergence. We examined how the stream network and terrestrial matrix affect genetic and phenotypic divergence in two stream salamanders, Gyrinophilus porphyriticus and Eurycea bislineata, in the Hubbard Brook Watershed, New Hampshire, USA. Based on previous findings and differences in adult terrestriality, we predicted that genetic divergence and phenotypic divergence in body morphology would be correlated in both species, but structured primarily by distance along the stream network in G. porphyriticus, and by overland distance in E. bislineata. Surprisingly, spatial patterns of genetic and phenotypic divergence were not strongly correlated. Genetic divergence, based on AFLPs, increased with absolute geographic distance between sites. Phenotypic divergence was unrelated to absolute geographic distance, but related to relative stream vs. overland distances. In G. porphyriticus, phenotypic divergence was low when sites were close by stream distance alone and high when sites were close by overland distance alone. The opposite was true for E. bislineata. These results show that small differences in life history can produce large differences in patterns of intraspecific divergence, and the limitations of landscape genetic data for inferring phenotypic divergence. Our results also underscore the importance of explicitly comparing how terrestrial and aquatic conditions affect spatial patterns of divergence in species with biphasic life cycles.
Data from: Sexual conflict and interacting phenotypes: a quantitative genetic analysis of fecundity and copula duration in Drosophila melanogaster
Many reproductive traits that have evolved under sexual conflict may be influenced by both sexes. Investigation of the genetic architecture of such traits can yield important insight into their evolution, but this entails that the heritable component of variation is estimated for males and females – as an interacting phenotype. We address the lack of research in this area through an investigation of egg production and copula duration in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Despite egg production rate being determined by both sexes, which may cause sexual conflict, an assessment of this trait as an interacting phenotype is lacking. It is currently unclear whether copula duration is determined by males and/or females. We found significant female, but not male, genetic variance for egg production rate which may indicate reduced potential for ongoing sexually antagonistic coevolution. In contrast, copula duration was determined by significant genetic variance in both sexes. We also identified genetic variation in egg retention among virgin females. Although previously identified in wild populations, it is unclear why this should be present in a laboratory stock. This study provides a novel insight into the shared genetic architecture of reproductive traits that are the subject of sexual conflict.
Data from: Distinct mesoderm migration phenotypes in extra-embryonic and embryonic regions of the early mouse embryo
In the gastrulation mouse embryo, epiblast cells delaminate at the primitive streak to form mesoderm and definitive endoderm, through an epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Mosaic expression of a membrane reporter in nascent mesoderm enabled recording cell shape and trajectory through live imaging. Upon leaving the streak, cells changed shape and extended protrusions of distinct size and abundance depending on the neighboring germ layer, as well as the region of the embryo. Embryonic trajectories were meandrous but directional, while extra-embryonic mesoderm cells showed little net displacement. Embryonic and extra-embryonic mesoderm transcriptomes highlighted distinct guidance, cytoskeleton, adhesion, and extracellular matrix signatures. Specifically, intermediate filaments were highly expressed in extra-embryonic mesoderm, while live imaging for F-actin showed abundance of actin filaments in embryonic mesoderm only. Accordingly, RhoA or Rac1 conditional deletion in mesoderm inhibited embryonic, but not extra-embryonic mesoderm migration. Overall, this indicates separate cytoskeleton regulation coordinating the morphology and migration of mesoderm subpopulations.
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