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FIGURES 133–147 in Taxonomy and host-plant relationships of the psyllid genus Mitrapsylla (Hemiptera: Psylloidea: Psyllidae) in Brazil
FIGURES 133–147. Mitrapsylla spp., head, dorsal view: 133. M. aeschynomenis sp. nov.; 134. M. amazonica sp. nov.; 135. M. andirae sp. nov.; 136. M. aurantia sp. nov., 137. M. brevigenis sp. nov.; 138. M. cassiae sp. nov.; 139. M. ceplaciensis (White & Hodkinson); 140. M. clavata sp. nov.; 141. M. cubana Crawford; 142. M. cujabensis sp. nov.; 143. M. cuspidata sp. nov.; 144. M. didyma sp. nov.; 145. M. domahovskii sp. nov.; 146. M. halbertae sp. nov.; 147. M. hamata sp. nov. Scale bar = 0.2 mm.
FIGURES 44–68 in Taxonomy and host-plant relationships of the psyllid genus Mitrapsylla (Hemiptera: Psylloidea: Psyllidae) in Brazil
FIGURES 44–68. Mitrapsylla spp., male terminalia, lateral view: 44–46, 48, 50–52, 55, 58, 60, 63. Paramere, outer surface; 53, 56, 59, 61, 64–68. Paramere, inner surface; 47, 49, 54, 57, 62. Distal segment of aedeagus. 44. M. melanothorax sp. nov.; 45. M. pterogynis sp. nov.; 46–47. M. holocalycis sp. nov.; 48–49. M. itacoatiara sp. nov.; 50. M. hamata sp. nov.; 51. M. securigera sp. nov.; 52–54. M. domahovskii sp. nov.; 55–57. M. halbertae sp. nov.; 58–59. M. machaerii sp. nov.; 60–62. M. clavata sp. nov.; 63–64. M. andirae sp. nov.; 65. M. itaparica sp. nov.; 66. M. soror sp. nov.; 67. M. cujabensis sp. nov.; 68. M. villosi sp. nov. Scale bar = 0.05 mm.
FIGURES 69–92 in Taxonomy and host-plant relationships of the psyllid genus Mitrapsylla (Hemiptera: Psylloidea: Psyllidae) in Brazil
FIGURES 69–92. Mitrapsylla spp., male terminalia, lateral view: 69, 71, 76, 77, 79, 81, 83–85, 87, 89, 91. Paramere, outer surface; 70, 72–75. Paramere, inner surface; 78, 80, 82, 86, 88, 90, 92. Distal segment of aedeagus. 69–70. M. periandrae sp. nov.; 71–72. M. aeschynomenis sp. nov.; 73. M. aurantia sp. nov.; 74. M. cubana Crawford; 75. M. didyma sp. nov.; 76. M. truncata sp. nov.; 77–78. M. brevigenis sp. nov.; 79–80. M. ceplaciensis (White & Hodkinson); 81–82. M. pterodontis sp. nov.; 83. M. ochra sp. nov.; 84. M. amazonica sp. nov.; 85–86. M. xanthoptera sp. nov.; 87–88. M. cassiae sp. nov.; 89–90. M. cuspidata sp. nov.; 91–92. M. pallida sp. nov. Scale bar = 0.05 mm.
Preference, performance, and chemical defense in an endangered butterfly using novel and ancestral host plants
<p>Adoption of novel host plants by herbivorous insects can require new adaptations and may entail loss of adaptation to ancestral hosts. We examined relationships between an endangered subspecies of the butterfly <i>Euphydryas editha </i>(Taylor's checkerspot) and three host plant species. Two of the hosts (<i>Castilleja hispida, Castilleja levisecta</i>) were used ancestrally while the other, <i>Plantago lanceolata</i>, is exotic and was adopted more recently. We measured oviposition preference, neonate preference, larval growth, and secondary chemical uptake on all three hosts. Adult females readily laid eggs on all hosts but favored <i>Plantago </i>and tended to avoid <i>C. levisecta. </i>Oviposition preference changed over time.<i> </i>Neonates had no preference among host species, but consistently chose bracts over leaves within both <i>Castilleja </i>species. Larvae developed successfully on all species and grew to similar size on all of them unless they ate only <i>Castilleja </i>leaves (rather than bracts) which limited their growth. Diet strongly influenced secondary chemical uptake by larvae. Larvae that ate <i>Plantago </i>or <i>C. hispida </i>leaves contained the highest concentrations of iridoid glycosides, and iridoid glycoside composition varied with host species and tissue type. Despite having largely switched to a novel exotic host and generally performing better on it, this population has retained breadth in preference and ability to use other hosts.</p>
FIGURES 1–6 in Thysanoptera host-plant associations, with an account of species living on Tamarix, and a new species of Lissothrips (Phlaeothripidae)
FIGURES 1–6. Lissothrips hemingi sp.n.: (1) Adult (female); (2) Adult (male); (3) Head and pronotum; (4) Meso, metanotum and pelta (female); (5) Meso and metanotum (male); (6) Antenna.
FIGURES 7–10 in Thysanoptera host-plant associations, with an account of species living on Tamarix, and a new species of Lissothrips (Phlaeothripidae)
FIGURES 7–10. Lissothrips hemingi sp.n.: (7) Abdominal tergites IV-VII (male); (8) Prostenum; (9) Head and fore leg (female); (10) Abdominal tergites IX and tube (female).
Neighboring trees regulate the root-associated pathogenic fungi on the host plant in a subtropical forest
<p>Root-associated fungi and host-specific pathogens are major determinants of species coexistence in forests. Phylogenetically related neighboring trees can strongly affect the fungal community structure of the host plant, which, in turn, will affect the ecological processes. Unfortunately, our understanding of the factors influencing fungal community composition in forests is still limited. In particular, investigation of the relationship between the phytopathogenic fungal community and neighboring trees is incomplete. In the current study, we tested the host specificity of members of the root-associated fungal community collected from seven tree species and determined the influence of neighboring trees and habitat variation on the composition of the phytopathogenic fungal community of the focal plant in a subtropical evergreen forest. Using high-throughput sequencing data with respect to the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, we characterized the community composition of the root-associated fungi and found significant differences with respect to fungal groups among the seven tree species. The density of conspecific neighboring trees had a significantly positive influence on the relative abundance of phytopathogens, especially host-specific pathogens, while the heterospecific neighbor density had a significant negative impact on the species richness of host-specific pathogens, as well as phytopathogens. Our work provides evidence that the root-associated phytopathogenic fungi of a host plant depends greatly on the tree neighbors of the host plant.</p>
Data from: Divergence before the host shift? Prezygotic reproductive isolation among three varieties of a specialist fly on a single host plant
1. Although divergence via host-plant shifting is a common theme in the speciation of some phytophagous insects, it is not clear whether host shifts are typically initiators of speciation or if they instead contribute to divergence events already in progress. While host shifts appear to be generally associated with speciation events for flies in the genus Strauzia, three sympatric varieties of the sunflower fly [Strauzia longipennis (Wiedemann)] co-occur on the same host plant in the Midwestern United States and may have evolved reproductive barriers without a host shift. 2. The strength of two prezygotic reproductive barriers was compared among the three S. longipennis varieties: one barrier that is often associated with divergent ecological selection (allochronic isolation), and another that is more likely to be independent of ecological selection (pre-copulatory sexual isolation). The presence and relative strength of each barrier between fly varieties were evaluated using microsatellites, no choice mating experiments, studies of allochronic isolation, and field collection data. 3. Evidence for both allochronic isolation and pre-copulatory sexual isolation was detected between the three varieties of S. longipennis. The measure of isolation calculated for each barrier between the three varieties was lower than measures calculated between different species of Strauzia found on different hosts, suggesting that subsequent host shifts may increase the degree of reproductive isolation. For Strauzia and other specialist insects, some reproductive isolation may evolve prior to, and indeed may facilitate, host shifts.
Data from: Shifts in diversification rates and host jump frequencies shaped the diversity of host range among Sclerotiniaceae fungal plant pathogens
The range of hosts that a parasite can infect in nature is a trait determined by its own evolutionary history and that of its potential hosts. However, knowledge on host range diversity and evolution at the family level is often lacking. Here, we investigate host range variation and diversification trends within the Sclerotiniaceae, a family of Ascomycete fungi. Using a phylogenetic framework, we associate diversification rates, the frequency of host jump events, and host range variation during the evolution of this family. Variations in diversification rate during the evolution of the Sclerotiniaceae define three major macro-evolutionary regimes with contrasted proportions of species infecting a broad range of hosts. Host-parasite co-phylogenetic analyses pointed towards parasite radiation on distant hosts long after host speciation (host jump or duplication events) as the dominant mode of association with plants in the Sclerotiniaceae. The intermediate macro-evolutionary regime showed a low diversification rate, high frequency of duplication events, and the highest proportion of broad host range species. Our findings suggest that the emergence of broad host range fungal pathogens results largely from host jumps, as previously reported for oomycete parasites, probably combined with low speciation rates. These results have important implications for our understanding of fungal parasites evolution and are of particular relevance for the durable management of disease epidemics.
Data from: Invasiveness of plant pathogens depends on the spatial scale of host distribution
Plant diseases often cause serious yield losses in agriculture. A pathogen's invasiveness can be quantified by the basic reproductive number, R0. Since pathogen transmission between host plants depends on the spatial separation between them, R0 is strongly influenced by the spatial scale of the host distribution.We present a proof of principle of a novel approach to estimate the basic reproductive number, R0, of plant pathogens as a function of the size of a field planted with crops and its aspect ratio. This general approach is based on a spatially explicit population dynamical model. The basic reproductive number was found to increase with the field size at small field sizes and to saturate to a constant value at large field sizes. It reaches a maximum in square fields and decreases as the field becomes elongated. This pattern appears to be quite general: it holds for dispersal kernels that decrease exponentially or faster, as well as for fat-tailed dispersal kernels that decrease slower than exponential (i.e., power-law kernels).We used this approach to estimate R0 in wheat stripe rust (an important disease caused by Puccinia striiformis), where we inferred both the transmission rates and the dispersal kernels from the measurements of disease gradients. For the two largest datasets, we estimated R0 of P. striiformis in the limit of large fields to be of the order of 30. We found that the spatial extent over which R0 changes strongly is quite fine-scaled (about 30 m of the linear extension of the field). Our results indicate that in order to optimize the spatial scale of deployment of fungicides or host resistances, the adjustments should be made at a fine spatial scale. We also demonstrated how the knowledge of the spatial dependence of R0 can improve recommendations with regard to fungicide treatment.
Data from: Lack of evolution in a leaf beetle that lives on two contrasting host plants
The interactions between plant-eating insects and their hosts have shaped both the insects and the plants, driving evolution of plant defenses and insect specialization. The leaf beetle Trirhabda eriodictyonis (Chrysomelidae) lives on two shrubs with differing defenses: Eriodictyon crassifolium has hairy leaves, whereas E. trichocalyx has resinous leaves. We tested whether these beetles have differentiated onto the two host plants, and if not, whether the beetles prefer the better host plant and prefer mates who are from that host plant. In feeding tests, adult beetles strongly preferred eating E. trichocalyx regardless of which host they came from. In addition, females laid more eggs if they ate E. trichocalyx than E. crassifolium. So, E. trichocalyx is generally the better host. However, beetle mate preference was not in line with food choice. Males did not prefer to mate with females from E. trichocalyx. Females from E. crassifolium did prefer males from E. trichocalyx over males from E. crassifolium, but did not lay more eggs as a result of these matings. We conclude that the beetle populations we studied have not differentiated based on their host plants and may not have even adapted to the better host. Although to humans these host plant defenses differ dramatically, signs that they have caused evolution in the beetles are lacking. The case of T. eriodictyonis stands counter to many other studies that have seen the differentiation of ecotypes and/or adaptive coordination of an herbivore's life cycle based on host plant differences.
Data from: Resource overlap and dilution effects shape host plant use in a myrmecophilous butterfly
1. The effects of consumers on fitness of resource organisms are a complex function of the spatio-temporal distribution of the resources, consumer functional responses and trait preferences, and availability of other resources. 2. The ubiquitous variation in the intensity of species interactions has important consequences for the ecological and evolutionary dynamics of natural populations. Nevertheless, little is known about the processes causing this variation and their operational scales. Here, we examine how variation in the intensity of a consumer-resource interaction is related to resource timing, resource density and abundance of other resources. 3. Using the butterfly consumer Phengaris alcon and its two sequential resources, the host plant Gentiana pneumonanthe and the host ants Myrmica spp., we investigated how butterfly egg-laying depended on focal host plant phenology, density and phenology of neighboring host plants and host ant abundance. 4. Butterflies preferred plants that simultaneously maximized the availability of both larval resources in time and space, i.e., they chose early-flowering plants that were of higher nutritional quality for larvae where host ants were abundant. Both the probability of oviposition and the number of eggs were lower in plant individuals with a high neighbor density than in more isolated plants, and this dilution effect was stronger when neighbors flowered early. 5. Our results show that plant-herbivore interactions simultaneously depend on the spatio-temporal distribution of a focal resource, and on the small-scale spatial variation in the abundance of other herbivore resources. Given that consumers have negative effects on fitness and prefer certain timing of the resource organisms, this implies that processes acting at the levels of individuals, populations and communities simultaneously contribute to variation in consumer-mediated natural selection.
Data from: Virus infection influences host plant interactions with non-vector herbivores and predators
1. Viruses are widespread in both natural and agricultural plant communities and can significantly alter diverse traits of their host plants that mediate key interactions with other organisms. Yet, the impacts of plant viruses on broader community dynamics remain little studied. 2. Here we explore the effects of Cucumber mosaic virus, a common non-persistently transmitted plant virus, on short and long-term interactions of herbivorous and predatory insects with squash (Cucurbita pepo) plants in a weedy field setting, as well as virus-induced changes in plant phenotypes that mediate these interactions. Cucumber mosaic virus has previously been shown to have numerous effects on host plants that likely influence interactions with arthropods, including reduced plant size, increased volatile emissions, and diminished plant quality and palatability for aphid vectors. 3. Infection reduced the likelihood of many herbivorous insects arresting and feeding on plants, as well as the apparency of plants to herbivores that base in-flight foraging on visual cues. In particular, infection drastically reduced numbers of a specialist squash herbivore (Anasa tristis) on plants in the field—a pattern likely driven by a reduction of phagostimulatory sugar levels in leaf tissue and concurrent increase in amino acid levels, as nymphal development was not obviously impacted by infection status. Relative to effects on herbivores, virus infection had little impact on the ability of predatory insects to locate aphid prey, although an experiment examining plant visitation in the absence of aphids revealed reduced numbers of foraging Syrphidae (Diptera) and Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) on infected plants but increased visitation and oviposition by Chrysopidae (Neuroptera). 4. CMV infection may reduce overall herbivore pressure on infected plants through effects on palatability and apparency, yet predators appear to locate herbivorous prey that do occur on infected plants as efficiently as those on healthy plants. 5. Virus infection can significantly influence plant interactions with the insect community (including non-vector as well as vector insects) with potential implications both for disease spread and for broader community dynamics.
Angiosperm to Gymnosperm host-plant switch entails shifts in microbiota of the Welwitschia bug, Probergrothius angolensis (Distant, 1902)
<p>Adaptation of herbivorous insects to new host plants is key to their evolutionary success in diverse environments. Many insects are associated with mutualistic gut bacteria that contribute to the host's nutrition and can thereby facilitate dietary switching in polyphagous insects. However, how gut microbial communities differ between populations of the same species that feed on different host plants remains poorly understood. Most species of Pyrrhocoridae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) are specialist seed-feeders on plants in the family Malvaceae, however populations of one species, <i>Probergrothius angolensis</i>, has switched to the very distantly related <i>Welwitschia mirabilis </i>plant in the Namib Desert. We first compared development and survival of laboratory populations of <i>Pr. angolensis</i> with two other pyrrhocorids on seeds of <i>Welwitschia</i> and found only <i>Pr. angolensis</i> capable of successfully completing its development. We then collected <i>Pr. angolensis</i> in Namibia<i> </i>from Malvaceae and <i>Welwitschia</i> host plants, respectively, to assess their bacterial and fungal community profiles using high-throughput amplicon sequencing. Comparison with long-term lab reared insects indicated stable associations of <i>Pr. angolensis</i> with core bacteria (<i>Commensalibacter, Enterococcus, Bartonella, </i>and <i>Klebsiella</i>), but not fungi or yeasts. Phylogenetic analyses of core bacteria revealed relationships to other insect-associated bacteria, but also found new taxa indicating potential host-specialized nutritional roles. Importantly, the microbial community profiles of bugs feeding on <i>Welwitschia</i> vs. Malvaceae revealed stark and consistent differences in the relative abundance of core bacterial taxa that correlate with the host-plant switch; a result we were able to recreate through feeding experiments. Thus, a dynamic gut microbiota may provide a means for insect adaptation to new host plants in new environments when food plants are extremely divergent.</p>
Data from: Melampyrum sylvaticum as a pre-diapause host plant of the scarce fritillary (Euphydryas maturna) in Finland
Background: The scarce fritillary Euphydryas (Hypodryas) maturna (L.) is included in the Habitats Directive's Annexes II and IV(a). Therefore, it is crucially important to be able to define the habitat and breeding places of E. maturna in a correct and unbiased way. New information: Data on a previously unknown pre-diapause main host plant, the small cow-wheat (Melampyrum sylvaticum L.), of Euphydryas maturna in Finland is presented.
Data from: Seasonally dependent relationship between insect herbivores and host plant density in Jatropha nana, a tropical perennial herb
The fact that plant spatial aggregation patterns shape insect herbivore communities in a variety of ways has resulted in a large body of literature on the subject. The landmark resource concentration hypothesis predicts that density of insect-herbivores per plant will increase as host plant density increases. I examined this prediction across temporal samplings using Jatropha nana and the associated specialist insect-herbivores as a system. Through 12 field samplings, I modelled the effect of host plant density on insect-herbivore loads. The initial samplings (2-3) provided evidence for the resource concentration hypothesis with insect loads increasing with increasing host plant density, whereas the later samplings (4-5, 7-11) showed the opposite- a resource dilution pattern with decline of insect loads with increasing host plant density. These patterns also depend on the biology of the herbivores and have important implications on J. nana population dynamics.
Data from: Host cues mediate growth and establishment of oak mistletoe (Phoradendron leucarpum, Viscaceae), an aerial parasitic plant.
The oak mistletoe (Phoradendron leucarpum, Viscaceae) is well-documented to exhibit preference for a few potential host species in a given locality, even when many potential host species are present. In trying to explain this distribution, we examined the mechanisms by which mistletoe seedlings recognize potentially suitable hosts in the Piney Woods ecoregion of east Texas. An initial survey of patterns of infection on the campus of Sam Houston State University revealed that water oak (Quercus nigra) was host to nearly half of the mistletoes observed, despite comprising less than 15% of trees surveyed. Field experiments demonstrated that light, host physiochemistry, and volatiles released from potential host trees serve as cues affecting the viability and establishment of mistletoe seedlings. These results provoked further study in controlled laboratory settings, in which it was demonstrated that chemical compounds in the bark of local host trees (compared to trees that serve as hosts elsewhere, but not in our survey) induce significantly although slightly greater seedling viability. Establishment of haustoria depended only on the presence of these chemicals, regardless of host species. Importantly, we demonstrated that three common monoterpenes, limonene, β-myrcene, and β-phellandrene induce a positive growth response of mistletoe radicles. These results taken together suggest a model to explain local host preference in P. leucarpum, in which covariation between mistletoe fruit maturity and monoterpene production by hosts determines the distribution of successful haustorial establishment.
Data from: Specificity, rank preference and the colonization of a non-native host plant by the Melissa blue butterfly
Animals often express behavioral preferences for different types of food or other resources, and these preferences can evolve or shift following association with novel food types. Shifts in preference can involve at least two phenomena: a change in rank preference or a change in specificity. The former corresponds to a change in the order in which hosts are preferred, while a shift in specificity can be an increase in the tendency to utilize multiple hosts. These possibilities have been examined in relatively few systems that include extensive population-level replication. The Melissa blue butterfly, Lycaeides melissa, has colonized exotic alfalfa, Medicago sativa, throughout western North America. We assayed host preferences of 229 females from 10 populations associated with novel and native hosts. In four out of five native-associated populations, a native host was preferred over the exotic host, while preference for a native host characterized only two out of five of the alfalfa-associated populations. Across all individuals from alfalfa-associated populations, there appears to have been a decrease in specificity: females from these populations lay fewer eggs on the native host and more eggs on the exotic relative to females from native-host populations. However, females from alfalfa-associated populations did not lay more eggs on a third plant species, which suggests that preferences for specific hosts in this system can potentially be gained and lost independently. Geographic variation in oviposition preference in L. melissa highlights the value of surveying a large number of populations when studying the evolution of a complex behavioral trait.
Data from: Differential aphid toxicity to ladybeetles is not a function of host plant or facultative bacterial symbionts
Herbivores often defend themselves from predation by transmitting toxic plant-produced chemicals to their enemies. Polyphagous herbivores sometimes exhibit differential toxicity when found on various host plant species, which is generally assumed to reflect variation in plant chemistry. Here, however, we provide evidence that host-associated herbivore lineages can intrinsically differ in their toxic properties. Lineages of Aphis craccivora originating from black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) are unsuitable food for the ladybeetle Harmonia axyridis, resulting in death of both larvae and adults, whereas aphid lineages originating from alfalfa (Medicago sativa) support larval development and adult reproduction. We show that locust-origin aphids remain toxic and alfalfa-origin aphids remain non-toxic when reared on any of three legume plants (fava, alfalfa or locust). Furthermore, toxicity is not a function of the facultative bacterial symbiont Arsenophonus, which is naturally present in locust-origin aphid lineages and facilitates aphid use of locust. Experimentally cured locust-origin lineages remain toxic, and an experimentally transinfected alfalfa-origin lineage remains non-toxic to H. axyridis. Instead, Arsenophonus plays an indirect role in the distribution of toxic aphid lineages by facilitating aphid use of locust. It is the parthenogenetic coinheritance of Arsenophonus and the toxic trait that observationally correlates locust-feeding with toxicity in A. craccivora, rather than host plant chemistry per se. Our results clearly demonstrate that aphid lineages intrinsically vary in their toxic properties in a way that neither plant chemistry nor bacterial symbionts can explain. A more inclusive paradigm is needed for understanding variation in herbivore defence against predators.
Data from: Bottom-up effects of host-plant species diversity and top-down effects of ants interactively increase plant performance
While plant diversity is well known to increase primary productivity, whether these bottom-up effects are enhanced by reciprocal top-down effects from the third trophic level is unknown. We studied whether pine tree species diversity, aphid-tending ants and their interaction determined plant performance and arthropod community structure. Plant diversity had a positive effect on aphids, but only in the presence of mutualistic ants, leading to threefold greater number of both groups in the tri-specific cultures than in monocultures. Plant diversity increased ant abundance not only by increasing aphid number, but also by increasing ant recruitment per aphid. The positive effect of diversity on ants in turn cascaded down to increase plant performance; diversity increased plant growth (but not biomass), and this effect was stronger in the presence of ants. Consequently, bottom-up effects of diversity within the same genus and guild of plants and top-down effects from the third trophic level (predatory ants) interactively increased plant performance.
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