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FIGURES 122–129. Figures 122–126 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 122–129. Figures 122–126: Chromatomyia horticola (Goureau); 122–123: mines with puparia (indicated by arrows) in Ononis arvensis leaf; 122: viewed from upper leaf surface; 123: viewed from lower leaf surface, with puparia indicated by arrows; 124: empty puparium viewed from the side; 125: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view); 126: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 127–129: Ch. periclymeni (Hendel); 127: mine in Lonicera sp. leaf (photo by A. Gubin); 128–129: posterior segments of puparium; 128: lateral view; 129: posterior view.

FIGURES 45–57. Figures 45–48 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 45–57. Figures 45–48: Amauromyza (A.) carlinae (Hering); 45: mines in Echinops sphaerocephalus leaf; 46–47: posterior segments of puparium; 46: lateral view; 47: posterior view. 48: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 49–52: A. (A.) chamaebalani (Hering); 49: mine in Lathyrus sp. leaf; 50–51: posterior segments of puparium; 50: lateral view; 51: posterior view. 52: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 53–57: Calycomyza artemisiae (Kaltenbach); 53–54: mines; 53: in Eupatorium cannabinum leaf; 54: in Artemisia vulgaris leaf; 55–56: posterior segments of puparium; 55: lateral view; 56: posterior view. 57: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 58–66. Figures 58–61 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 58–66. Figures 58–61: Amauromyza (A.) leonuri Spencer; 58: mine in Betonica officinalis leaf; 59–60: posterior segments of puparium; 59: lateral view; 60: posterior view. 61: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 62–66: A. (A.) stachysi spec. nov.; 62–63: mines; 62: in Leonurus quinquelobatus leaf; 63: in Stachys palustris leaf; 64–65: posterior segments of puparium; 64: lateral view; 65: posterior view. 66: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 168–175. Figures 168–171 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 168–175. Figures 168–171: Liriomyza strigata (Meigen); 168: mine in Verbascum densiflorum leaf; 169–170: posterior segments of puparium; 169: lateral view; 170: posterior view. 171: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 172–175: L. taraxaci Hering; 172: mine in Taraxacum officinale leaf; 173–174: posterior segments of puparium; 173: posterior view; 174: lateral view. 175: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 112–121. Figures 112–115 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 112–121. Figures 112–115: Nemorimyza posticata (Meigen); 112: mines in Solidago canadensis leaf; 113: puparium viewed from the side; 114: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view); 115: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 116–121: Chromatomyia gentianae Hering; 116–118: mines; 116–117: in Gentiana asclepiadella leaf; 118: in G. lutea leaf; 119: empty puparium viewed from the side; 120: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view); 121: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 221–235. Figures 221–225 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 221–235. Figures 221–225: Phytomyza nowakowskiana Beiger; 221–222: mine in Symphytum cordatum leaf; 223: empty puparium viewed from the side; 224: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view); 225: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 226–230: P. pulmonaria Nowakowski, reared from Myosotis sparsiflora; 226: mine; 227: puparium in mine; 228: empty puparium viewed from the side; 229: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view); 230: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 231–235: P. pulmonaria Nowakowski, reared from Symphytum asperum; 231: mines; 232: puparia in mine; 233: empty puparium viewed from the side; 234: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view); 235: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 159–167. Figures 159–162 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 159–167. Figures 159–162: Liriomyza hieracii (Kaltenbach); 159: mines in Pilosella officinarum leaf; 160–161: posterior segments of puparium; 160: lateral view; 161: posterior view. 162: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 163– 167: L. tragopogonis de Meijere; 163: mine in Tragopogon podolicus leaf; 164: puparium in stem of T. podolicus; 165–166: posterior segments of puparium; 165: lateral view; 166: posterior view. 167: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 75–83. Figures 75–77 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 75–83. Figures 75–77: Cerodontha (C.) phragmitophila Hering; 75–76: posterior segments of puparium; 75: lateral view; 76: posterior view. 77: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 78–80: C. (Butomomyza) gibbifera spec. nov.; 78–79: posterior segments of puparium; 78: lateral view; 79: posterior view. 80: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 81–83: Cerodontha (Poemyza) spencerae Zlobin; 81: mine in Elymus repens leaf; 82–83: posterior segments of puparium; 82: lateral view; 83: posterior view.

FIGURES 37–44. Figures 37–40 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 37–44. Figures 37–40: Ophiomyia maura (Meigen); 37: mine in Solidago virgaurea leaf; 38–39: posterior segments of puparium; 38: lateral view; 39: posterior view. 40: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 41–44: O. versera Guglya; 41: mine with puparium (indicated by arrow) in Campanula rapunculoides leaf; 42: puparium viewed from the side; 43–44: posterior segments of puparium; 43: lateral view; 44: posterior view.

FIGURES 84–93. Figures 84–88 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 84–93. Figures 84–88: Cerodontha (Butomomyza) hreblensis spec. nov.; 84: mine with puparium (indicated by arrow) in Carex sp. leaf; 85: larva viewed from the side; 86–87: posterior segments of puparium; 86: lateral view; 87: posterior view. 88: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 89–93: C. (Dizygomyza) iraeos (Robineau-Desvoidy); 89: mine in Iris pseudacorus leaf; 90: puparium (indicated by arrow) in I. pseudacorus; 91: empty puparium viewed from above; 92: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view). 93: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 67–74. Figures 67–70 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 67–74. Figures 67–70: Amauromyza (Cephalomyza) flavifrons (Meigen); 67: mine in Silene latifolia subsp. alba leaf; 68–69: posterior segments of puparium; 68: lateral view; 69: posterior view. 70: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 71–74: Aulagromyza populi (Kaltenbach); 71: mines in Populus nigra leaf; 72–73: posterior segments of puparium; 72: lateral view; 73: posterior view. 74: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 138–149. Figures 138–142 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 138–149. Figures 138–142: Liriomyza bryoniae (Kaltenbach); 138–139: mines in Gypsophyla paniculata: 138: leaf and stem (indicated by arrow); 139: in leaf. 140–141: posterior segments of puparium; 140: lateral view; 141: posterior view. 142: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 143–146: L. cicerina (Rondani); 143: mines in Cicer arietinum leaf; 144–145: posterior segments of puparium; 144: lateral view; 145: posterior view. 146: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 147–149: L. congesta (Becker); 147–148: posterior segments of puparium; 147: lateral view; 148: posterior view. 149: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 29–36. Figures 29–32 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 29–36. Figures 29–32: Ophiomyia asparagi Spencer; 29: "pupal blister" with puparium (indicated by arrow) in Asparagus officinalis stem; 30: stem mine in A. officinalis; 31–32: posterior segments of puparium; 31: lateral view; 32: posterior view. Figures 33–36: O. foliaphila spec. nov.; 33: mine with puparium (indicated by arrow) in Stachys palustris leaf; 34: "pupal blister" with puparium in S. palustris leaf; 35: puparium viewed from the side; 36: posterior segments of puparium (posterior view).

FIGURES 9–18. Figures 9–12 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 9–18. Figures 9–12: Agromyza hendeli Griffiths; 9: mine in Glyceria maxima leaf; 10–11: posterior segments of puparium; 10: lateral view; 11: posterior view. 12: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 13–15: A. igniceps Hendel; 13–14: posterior segments of puparium; 13: lateral view; 14: posterior view. 15: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 16–18: A. reptans Fallén; 16–17: posterior segments of puparium; 16: lateral view; 17: posterior view. 18: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

FIGURES 1–8. Figures 1–4 in Rearing mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from host plants as an instrument for associating females with males, with the description of seven new species

FIGURES 1–8. Figures 1–4: Agromyza abiens Zetterstedt; 1: mine in Cynoglossum officinale leaf; 2–3: posterior segments of puparium; 2: lateral view; 3: posterior view. 4: posterior spiracles (posterior view). Figures 5–8: A. albipennis Meigen; 5: mine with larva (indicated by arrow) in Elymus repens leaf; 6–7: posterior segments of puparium; 6: lateral view; 7: posterior view. 8: posterior spiracles (posterior view).

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Species complex diversification by host plant use in an herbivorous insect: The source of Puerto Rican cactus mealybug pest and implications for biological control

Cryptic taxa have often been observed in the form of host‐associated species that diverged as the result of adaptation to alternate host plants. Untangling cryptic diversity in species complexes that encompass invasive species is a mandatory task for pest management. Moreover, investigating the evolutionary history of a species complex may help to understand the drivers of their diversification. The mealybug Hypogeococcus pungens was believed to be a polyphagous species from South America and has been reported as a pest devastating native cacti in Puerto Rico, also threatening cactus diversity in the Caribbean and North America. There is neither certainty about the identity of the pest, nor the source population from South America. Recent studies pointed to substantial genetic differentiation among local populations, suggesting that H. pungens is a species complex. In this study, we used a combination of genome-wide SNPs and mtDNA variation to investigate species diversity within H. pungens sensu lato to establish host plant ranges of each one of the putative members of the complex, to evaluate whether the pattern of host plant association drove diversification in the species complex, and to determine the source population of the Puerto Rican cactus pest. Our results suggested that H. pungens comprises at least five different species, each one strongly associated with specific host plants. We also established that the Puerto Rican cactus pest derives from southeastern Brazilian mealybugs. This is an important achievement because it will help to design reliable strategies for biological control using natural enemies of the pest from its native range.

Figure 1 in Effects of different ant species on the attendance of neighbouring hemipteran colonies and the outcomes for the host plant

Figure 1. Frequency of ant visitation on mealybug aggregations during manipulative experiment (9 days) by (a) Camponotus crassus and (b) Ectatomma tuberculatum showing the treatment individuals (grey bars – with ant exclusion during manipulation period – days 4, 5 and 6) and control individuals (white bars – with ant access all time). The frequency of C. crassus visitation increased when prevented from tending the treatment aggregation [repeated-measures one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA); * p <0.05; means ± 1 standard error (SE) are presented].

Figure 4 in Effects of different ant species on the attendance of neighbouring hemipteran colonies and the outcomes for the host plant

Figure 4. Comparative analysis of abundance of mealybugs on plants with and without (a) Camponotus crassus and (b) Ectatomma tuberculatum on shrubs of Banisteriopsis campestris in a Brazilian tropical savanna. [T test; * indicates statistical difference; p <0.05; means ± 1 standard error (SE) are presented].

Figure 2 in Effects of different ant species on the attendance of neighbouring hemipteran colonies and the outcomes for the host plant

Figure 2. Comparative analysis of abundance of nymphs attended by (a) Camponotus crassus and (b) Ectatomma tuberculatum on individuals of Banisteriopsis campestris with and without ants over 76 days of monitoring (sampling: 1° – 5 February 2014; 2° – 26 February 2014; 3° – 19 March 2014; 4° – 9 April 2014). A statistical difference was observed for nymphs attended by C. crassus [Friedman test; * indicates statistical difference; p <0.05; means ± 1 standard error (SE) are presented].

Figure 3 in Effects of different ant species on the attendance of neighbouring hemipteran colonies and the outcomes for the host plant

Figure 3. Proportion of fruit production with (a) Camponotus crassus and (b) Ectatomma tuberculatum in the group with both mealybugs and ants, group with only ants, group with only mealybugs, and group without ants or mealybugs. Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA, p <0.05) with the presence/absence of each group (ants and mealybugs) treated as a separate factor. Means + 1 standard error (SE) are presented. The asterisk (*) in (a) indicates a significant negative interactive effect by C. crassus and mealybugs on proportion of fruit production (p <0.05; see Table 1).