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opencc-zeroNov 2021View details →

Post-Pleistocene Dispersal Explains the Rapoport Effect in North American Salamanders

Aims: In many taxa, the latitudinal span of species' geographic ranges is positively correlated with median latitude (i.e., a Rapoport effect). This is frequently explained as adaptation to contemporary climate, however, variability in postglacial range expansion among species could also explain this pattern. Here, we analyze geographic data for North American salamanders to test the causes of Rapoport effects. Location: Temperate North America Taxon: Salamanders (order Caudata) Methods: Using range maps, we tested for a Rapoport effect. We then manipulated species' latitudinal ranges and species pools to test for an impact of postglacial range expansion in forming a Rapoport effect. In addition, we built ecological niche models for species found south of the Wisconsin Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum and transferred these models to postglacial areas. If dispersal is important in forming a Rapoport effect, then some species may be able to tolerate northern climates but have not expanded northward as a result of variation in geographic access to postglacial habitats. Results: We found evidence of a Rapoport effect that was robust to the null models we tested. Analyses that manipulated ranges and species pools supported a role for variation in postglacial range expansion among species, especially for eastern North America. Results from transferring ecological niche models indicated that species have suitable habitat north of their range limit. Main conclusions: Our analyses suggest that variation in postglacial range expansion is likely important in shaping geographic range size variation among species in areas where climates have changed rapidly. Postglacial colonization and range expansion likely plays an important role in forming latitudinal biodiversity gradients in many taxa. Historically, ecophysiology and biotic interactions have been emphasized as important contributors to diversity gradients, yet our study indicates that postglacial colonization also plays a key role in forming latitudinal biodiversity gradients.

opencc-zeroNov 2021View details →

Individual variation in marine larval-fish swimming speed and the emergence of dispersal kernels

Dispersal emerges as a consequence of how an individual's phenotype interacts with the environment. Not all dispersing individuals have the same phenotype, and variation among individuals can generate complex variation in the distribution of dispersal distances and directions. While active locomotion performance is an obvious candidate for a dispersal phenotype, its effects on dispersal are difficult to measure or predict, especially in small organisms dispersing in wind or currents. Therefore, we analyzed the effects of larval swimming on dispersal and settlement of coral-reef fish larvae using a high-resolution biophysical model. The model is, to date, the only biophysical model of marine larval dispersal that has been statistically validated against genetic parentage estimates of larval origin and destination, and incorporates empirically-estimated larval behaviors and their ontogeny. Larval swimming, in combination with depth, orientation, and navigation behaviors, actually reduced dispersal distances compared to those of passive larvae. Swimming had no consistent effects on long distance dispersal, but increased the spread of settlement locations. Swimming speed, in contrast, did not consistently affect median dispersal distances, but faster swimming larvae had greater mean and maximum dispersal distances than slower swimming larvae. Finally, faster larval swimming speeds consistently increased the probability of settlement. Our analysis shows how larval swimming differentially affects multiple properties of dispersal kernels. In doing so, it indicates how selection could favor faster larval swimming to increase settlement, which may actually result in longer dispersal distances as a by-product of larvae trying to locate habitat rather than to disperse greater distances.

opencc-by-4.0Oct 2021View details →

Data for "Wave dispersion and dissipation in landfast ice: comparison of observations against models"

Data to replicate Figures 2, 3 and 7 in the manuscript: Wave dispersion and dissipation in landfast ice: comparison of observations against models. Article submitted for review to The Cryosphere (https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2021-210)

opencc-zeroNov 2021View details →

Data on measuring splash dispersal of a major wheat pathogen in the field

Capacity for dispersal is a fundamental fitness component of plant pathogens. Characterization of plant pathogen dispersal is important for understanding how pathogen populations change in time and space. We devised a systematic approach to measure and analyze rain splash-driven dispersal of plant pathogens in field conditions, using the major fungal wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici as a case study.We inoculated field plots of wheat (Triticum aestivum) with two distinct Z. tritici strains. Next, we measured disease intensity as counts of fruiting bodies (pycnidia) using automated image analysis. These measurements characterized primary disease gradients, which we used to estimate effective dispersal of the pathogen population. Genotyping of reisolated pathogen strains with strain-specific PCR confirmed the conclusions drawn from phenotypic data. Consistently with controlled environment studies,we found that the characteristic scale of dispersal is tens of centimeters.We analyzed the data using a spatially explicit mathematical model that incorporates the spatial extent of the source, rather than assuming a point source,which allows for a more accurate estimation of dispersal kernels.We employed bootstrapping methods for statistical testing and adopted a two-dimensional hypotheses test based on kernel density estimation, enabling more robust inference compared with standard methods. We report the first estimates of dispersal kernels of the pathogen in field conditions. However, repeating the experiment in other environments would lead to more robust conclusions.We put forward advanced methodology that paves the way for further measurements of plant pathogen dispersal in field conditions, which can inform spatially targeted plant disease management.

The ability to disperse large seeds, rather than body mass alone, defines the importance of animals in a hyper-diverse seed dispersal network

1. Large-bodied animals play irreplaceable roles in seed dispersal, partly due to their capacity to disperse large seeds. Understanding this role at a community level has been limited by the paucity of network studies that include large vertebrates, and the almost complete absence of studies including synzoochoric dispersers. Synzoochoric dispersers can disperse seeds disproportionately large for their body size, potentially overlapping the roles of large-bodied animals. A comprehensive network, inclusive of large vertebrates and synzoochorous dispersers, is imperative to understand seed dispersal at a community level. 2. Here, we analysed the seed dispersal network of a hyper-diverse Sundaic forest in Malaysia using local ecological knowledge and including multiple forms of endozoochorous and synzoochorous dispersal. We evaluated the extent to which three disperser traits: body mass, seed-handling ability (size of the largest seed dispersed), and diet explained the importance of animals in the network. We evaluated dispersers' relative importance using four network metrics — degree of specialisation (nested rank), species strength, within-module connectivity (z-value), and between-modules connectivity (c-value). 3. We found that seed-handling ability had the biggest effect on a disperser's importance, with strong effects on three network metrics (species strength, ecological specialization, z-value) and moderate effects on connectivity between modules. Body mass was important in defining interactions within modules, and dietary differences defined the ecological specialisation of species in seed dispersal. 4. Important dispersers in our network were large-seed dispersers (e.g., rats, gibbons), large-bodied animals, in particular the Asian elephant, and animals with frugivorous diets such as hornbills. 5. Synthesis. Our work uncovers the significance of seed-handling ability in identifying pivotal seed dispersal roles in tropical rainforests. Key dispersers include large-bodied herbivores and medium-sized frugivores that could disperse large seeds by endozoochory, and smaller rodents that dispersed similar-sized seeds by synzoochory. Many of the species that emerged as particularly important for the seed dispersal network are currently threatened (e.g., the Asian elephant, gibbons, and hornbills). Their protection or reintroduction should be a top conservation priority.

Fourier projection algorithm for calculating phonon dispersion relations of crystals

We propose a Fourier projection algorithm and demonstrate its superiority for calculation of the phonon dispersion relations of 2D and 3D crystals based on the atomic coordinate trajectories from supercell molecular dynamics/first-principle molecular dynamics simulations. The lattice vibration states are described in a six-dimensional phase space composed of lattice and wave vectors. Phonon dispersion information in the first Brillouin zone sampled with a k-mesh grid of N×N×N is generated by Fourier projection of the lattice vibration frequencies in the supercell by N×N×N primitive cells, the dispersion relations along high-symmetry paths are retrieved therefrom. Our algorithm is physically intuitive, computationally convenient, and universally applicable. As examples of application, the successful dispersion relation calculations of 2D graphene, 3D BCC-Fe and FCC-Cu are presented. This algorithm shows the correspondence between real and reciprocal lattices, that is, the spatial information in the states of the lattice vibration were preserved. The high-symmetry paths of the first Brillouin zone in the reciprocal lattice primitive cells of the hexagonal, BCC, and FCC lattice were also given in detail. In combination with first-principles molecular dynamics, as long as the interatomic force is accurately known, reliable and accurate dispersion relation can be achieved by this Fourier projection algorithm.

The individual-based network structure of palm-seed dispersers is explained by a rainforest gradient

How species interactions change in space and time is a major question in ecology. In tropical forests, plant individuals share mutualistic partners (pollinators or seed dispersers), yet we have little understanding of the factors affecting these individual interaction patterns. We used a seed dispersal individual-based network describing interactions between individuals of a palm species with bird species to investigate how intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of individual plants influence the network structure. In our work we evaluated if average canopy height, number of fruits, distance to forest gap, and habitat type influence the role of palm individuals in the network. From 102 palms, 62 individuals had their seeds dispersed at least once: 17 individual palms in the restinga, 15 in the lowland and 30 in the pre-montane habitat. Twelve bird species were recorded dispersing Euterpe edulis seeds in our study area.

Data to support publication figures and animation scripts at GitHub: Modeling weather-driven long-distance dispersal of spruce budworm moths (Choristoneura fumiferana)

Long-term studies of insect populations in the North American boreal forest have shown the vital importance of long-distance dispersal to the maintenance and expansion of insect outbreaks. In this work, we extend several concepts established previously in an empirically-based dispersal flight model with recent work on the physiology and behavior of the adult eastern spruce budworm (SBW) moth, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.). An outbreak of defoliating SBW in Quebec, ongoing since the mid-2000s, already covers millions of hectares of forests in eastern Canada and threatens to spread into neighboring areas through annual summertime episodes of long-distance dispersal. Such flight events in favorable conditions frequently include billions of SBW moths dispersing in the warm atmospheric boundary layer, typically starting around sunset and often lasting through several hours of wind-driven transport over hundreds of kilometers. Successful SBW dispersal to possibly distant host forest areas depends acutely on the weather. Here we describe the components and results of SBW–pyATM, an open-source individual-based modeling framework developed in Python for the simulation of these weather-driven SBW dispersal events. Using seasonal SBW phenology results from BioSIM at known outbreak locations and high-resolution Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model output, we focus on modeling dispersal flights over two successive nights in July 2013 in southern Quebec. Our flight model closely reproduces the SBW spatial patterns and motions observed by weather surveillance radar over the St. Lawrence estuary. With SBW–pyATM we can estimate landing locations for both male and female SBW and the resulting spatial patterns of egg distribution, allowing us eventually to forecast future larval defoliation activity in new locations where immigration could help overcome local limitations on SBW populations. This information could then support forest management decisions where SBW outbreaks threaten valuable resources.

Data from: The effects of human-altered habitat spatial pattern on frugivory and seed dispersal: a global meta-analysis

Seed dispersal by frugivorous animals is important for plant mobility, regeneration, and persistence. Human-caused landscape change is thought to disrupt seed dispersal, but evidence is scarce. We performed a comprehensive meta-analysis on the effects of habitat spatial pattern on frugivory and seed dispersal. We found 233 effects from 71 studies. At a patch or local scale, altered habitat spatial pattern was measured as declining patch size, increasing patch isolation, or habitat edge (vs. interior). At a landscape scale it was measured as declining amount of habitat, increasing mean patch isolation, increasing number of patches, or increasing habitat edge in the landscape. We found overall negative effects of altered habitat spatial pattern on: (i) the quantity of frugivory or seed dispersal, (ii) the number of species involved in a plant-frugivore interaction, and (iii) seed dispersal distance. Moderator variable analysis was only possible for the first of these. It revealed negative responses of the quantity of frugivory or seed dispersal to habitat loss at both the local scale (declining patch size), and the landscape scale (declining habitat amount), but little evidence for a response to habitat edge at either scale. In addition, altered habitat spatial pattern reduced the quantity of frugivory or seed dispersal more strongly in temperate than tropical areas. Finally, the few-recorded effects of landscape-scale fragmentation per se (increasing patch density or edge density) on the quantity of frugivory or seed dispersal were mixed and weak. Our meta-analysis reinforces the notion that habitat loss is a major threat to frugivory and seed dispersal by animals, and reveals an insufficiency of studies of the effects of habitat fragmentation per se. Thus, based on the current literature, we conclude that maintaining and increasing habitat amount is vital for maintaining seed dispersal by frugivorous animals.

Microsatellite genotype data from: Male-biased dispersal in a fungus-gardening ant symbiosis (Matthews et al, Ecology and Evolution)

For nearly all organisms, dispersal is a fundamental life history trait that can shape their ecology and evolution. Variation in dispersal capabilities within a species exists and can influence population genetic structure and ecological interactions. In fungus-gardening (attine) ants, co-dispersal of ants and mutualistic fungi is crucial to the success of this obligate symbiosis. Female-biased dispersal (and gene flow) may be favored in attines because virgin queens carry the responsibility of dispersing the fungi, but a paucity of research has made this conclusion difficult. Here, we investigate dispersal of the fungus-gardening ant Trachymyrmex septentrionalis using a combination of maternally- (mitochondrial DNA) and biparentally-inherited (microsatellites) markers. We found three distinct, spatially isolated mitochondrial DNA haplotypes; two were found in the Florida panhandle and the other in the Florida peninsula. In contrast, biparental markers illustrated significant gene flow across this region and minimal spatial structure. The differential patterns uncovered from mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers suggest that most long-distance ant dispersal is male-biased and that females (and concomitantly the fungus) have more limited dispersal capabilities. Consequently, the limited female dispersal is likely an important bottleneck for the fungal symbiont. This bottleneck could slow fungal genetic diversification, which has significant implications for both ant hosts and fungal symbionts regarding population genetics, species distributions, adaptive responses to environmental change, and coevolutionary patterns.

Lost mutualisms: seed dispersal by Sumatran rhinos, the world's most threatened megafauna

Diverse assemblages of seed-dispersing megafauna once existed in Asian rainforests, but are now almost solely represented by elephants. Asia's rhinos persist in remnant, ecologically-extinct populations and the most threatened of these is the Sumatran rhino, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis. To understand the seed dispersal role of Sumatran rhinos, we consolidated information on fruit consumption, seed dispersal and fruit traits from a two-month field study (Sumatra), local ecological knowledge (Peninsular Malaysia), and published and unpublished accounts. We evaluated differences between the taxa and traits of fruits dispersed by rhinos and elephants, and identified other dispersers of megafaunal-syndrome fruits that were rhino-dispersed. At least 79 plant species were dispersed by rhinos: overstorey plants (trees and climbers; 78% of species) had large, usually "mammal-coloured", fruits and seeds, and were mainly drupes and berries; 61% of these were megafaunal-syndrome fruits (>4 cm wide). Understorey plants (herbs, shrubs, small trees) had small, often capsular, fruits and seeds that are potentially dispersed following the "foliage-is-the-fruit" hypothesis. Rhinos were the only known disperser for 35% of the megafaunal-fruit genera. The highest dispersal overlap shown was with elephants: fruits dispersed by rhinos tended to be capsular and were smaller than fruits dispersed by both elephants and rhinos. Given these findings and the different foraging and ranging behaviour of Sumatran rhinos and elephants, we suggest these megafauna had important differences in their seed dispersal roles. Asian rainforests have, therefore, lost an important seed dispersal mutualist. Conservation efforts should aim to protect and restore the ecological function of these unique creatures.

Cold winters have morph-specific effects on natal dispersal distance in a wild raptor

Dispersal is a key process with crucial implications in spatial distribution, density and genetic structure of species' populations. Dispersal strategies can vary according to both individual and environmental features, but putative phenotype-by-environment interactions have rarely been accounted for. Melanin-based color polymorphism is a phenotypic trait associated with specific behavioral and physiological profiles and is therefore a good candidate trait to study dispersal tactics in different environments. Here, using a 40 years dataset of a population of color polymorphic tawny owls (Strix aluco), we investigated natal dispersal distance of recruiting gray and pheomelanic reddish-brown (hereafter brown) color morphs in relation to post-fledging winter temperature and individual characteristics. Since morphs are differently sensitive to cold winters, we predicted that morphs' natal dispersal distances vary according to winter conditions. Winter temperature did not affect the proportion of brown (or gray) among recruits. We found that dispersal distances correlate with winter temperature in an opposite manner in the two morphs. While the gray morph undertakes larger movements in harsher conditions, likely because it copes better with winter severity, the brown morph disperses shorter distances when winters are harsher. We discuss this morph-specific natal dispersal pattern in a context of competition for territories between morphs and in terms of costs and benefits of these alternative strategies. Our results stress the importance of considering the interaction between phenotype and environment to fully disentangle dispersal movement patterns and provide further evidence that climate affects behavior and local distribution of this species.

Data from: Dispersal decreases survival but increases reproductive opportunities for subordinates in a cooperative breeder

In most socially structured populations, the formation of new groups depends on the survival and reproduction of dispersing individuals. Quantifying vital rates in dispersers, however, is difficult due to logistic challenges of following wide-ranging animals. Here, using data from free-ranging meerkats (Suricata suricatta), we estimated survival and reproduction of dispersing and established resident females. Meerkat groups consist of a dominant pair and several subordinate helpers. Female helpers are evicted from their resident groups by the dominant female, allowing her to monopolize reproduction, and evicted females may form small dispersing coalitions. As in established resident groups, one female is behaviourally dominant in parties of dispersing females. We compared the survival, birth, and recruitment rates of dominant and subordinate females in dispersing coalitions to those of dominant and subordinate females in resident groups. We further compared the frequencies of different mortality causes (e.g., predation, disease) between dispersers and residents. For dispersers, we assessed if survival rates varied with dispersal distance and between transience and settlement stages of dispersal. During dispersal and the first four months after new group formation, survival is lower for all females compared to established resident groups. At the same time, subordinates in disperser groups have higher birth rates than those in established groups, which rarely breed successfully. This may partly offset the survival costs of dispersal to subordinate females. Further studies of dispersal based on direct observation of dispersing animals are needed to explore the costs and benefits of dispersal in species with contrasting breeding systems.

Current flow files mapped by Omniscape representing the dispersal of saltwater crocodiles

This folder contains raster data in asc format to be used with Omniscape to visualise predicted flow across a study area raster, using the core breeding habitat cells ('Saltwater crocodile core breeding habitat cells.asc') for saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) in the Northern Territory, Australia, the optimized resistance surface ('Saltwater crocodile optimized resistance surface.asc'), and core habitat cells ('Saltwater crocodile core habitat cells.asc') as ground nodes, effectively representing locations where current could 'settle'.

Role of individual dispersal in genetic resilience in fluctuating populations of the gray-sided vole Myodes rufocanus

Population densities of the grey-sided vole Myodes rufocanus fluctuate greatly within and across years in Japan. Here, to investigate the role of individual dispersal in maintaining population genetic diversity, we examined how genetic diversity varied during fluctuations in density by analyzing eight microsatellite loci in voles sampled three times per year for 5 years, using two fixed trapping grids (approximately 0.5 ha each). At each trapping session, all captured voles at each trapping grid were removed. The STRUCTURE program was used to analyze serially collected samples to examine how population crashes were related to temporal variability, based on local-scale genetic compositions in each population. In total, 461 and 527 voles were captured at each trapping grid during this study. The number of voles captured during each trapping session (i.e., vole density) varied considerably at both grids. Although patterns in fluctuations were not synchronized between grids, the peak densities were similar. At both grids, the mean allele number recorded at each trapping session was strongly, positively, and non-linearly correlated with density. STRUCTURE analyses revealed that the proportions of cluster compositions among individuals at each grid differed markedly before and after the crash phase, implying the long-distance dispersal of voles from remote areas at periods of low density. The present results suggest that, in grey-sided vole populations, genetic diversity varies with density largely at the local scale; in contrast, genetic variation in a metapopulation is well-preserved at the regional scale due to the density-dependent dispersal behaviors of individuals. By influencing the dispersal patterns of individuals, fluctuations in density affect metapopulation structure spatially and temporally, while the levels of genetic diversity are preserved in a metapopulation.

opencc-by-4.0Jan 2022View details →

Dataset for "Strong dispersion property for the quantum walk on the hypercube"

Dataset for Figure 1 and Figure 2 presented in "<a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1751-8121/aca6b9">Strong dispersion property for the quantum walk on the hypercube</a>" (preprint available at <a href="http://arxiv.org/abs/2201.11735">arxiv.org/abs/2201.11735</a>). The rows of data.csv file contain the calculated quantities related to the quantum walk on the hypercube: <ul> <li>the first row is the maximum probability of a vertex during a walk on the 50-dimensional hypercube;</li> <li>the second row contains the number of steps to minimize the aforementioned probability for various n;</li> <li>the third row is the maximum probability of a vertex after approximately 0.849n steps, for various n;</li> <li>the fourth row is the probability of the walker to be at the 0n vertex (n=50) during a walk on the 50-dimensional hypercube.</li> </ul>   The rows of aux.csv contain auxiliary data needed to plot the figures: <ul> <li>the first row contains the integers 0 to 199 and corresponds to the variable 't' in Figure 1;</li> <li>the second row contains the integers from 1 to 200 and corresponds to the variable 'n' in Figure 2;</li> <li>the third row is the value of the linear function -0.754 + 0.849*n, depicted in the upper panel of Figure 2;</li> <li>the fourth row is the value of the function 5*1.93^(-n), depicted in the lower panel of Figure 2.</li> </ul>   To generate the figures,  the following Matlab commands may be used (after loading the CSV files into variables aux and data): <pre><code>figure; scatter(aux(1,:),data(1,:),15); set(gca,'YScale','log') % F1: upper figure; scatter(aux(1,1:2:end),data(1,1:2:end),15); hold on; scatter(aux(1,:),data(4,:),15,'s'); hold off; set(gca,'YScale','log') % F1: lower figure; scatter(aux(2,:),data(2,:),15); hold on; plot(aux(2,:),aux(3,:)); xlim([0,100]);hold off; %F2: upper figure; scatter(aux(2,:),data(3,:),15);set(gca,'YScale','log'); hold on; semilogy(aux(2,:), aux(4,:));hold off; xlim([0,100]); %F2: lower</code></pre>

Reproductive benefits associated with dispersal in headwater populations of Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

Theory suggests that the evolution of dispersal is balanced by its fitness costs and benefits, yet empirical evidence is sparse due to the difficulties of measuring dispersal and fitness in natural populations. Here, we use spatially-explicit data from a multi-generational capture-mark-recapture study of two populations of Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata) along with pedigrees to test whether there are fitness benefits correlated with dispersal. Combining these ecological and molecular datasets allows us to directly measure the relationship between movement and reproduction. Individual dispersal was measured as the total distance moved by a fish during its lifetime. We analyzed the effects of dispersal propensity and distance on a variety of reproductive metrics. We found that number of mates and number of offspring produced were positively correlated to dispersal, especially for males. Our results also reveal individual and environmental variation in dispersal, with sex, size, season, and stream acting as determining factors.

opencc-by-4.0Oct 2021View details →

Dispersal probabilities and geography input for BioGeoBEARS

Dispersal probabilities by assigned geographical time-slice and range data for use in BioGeoBEARS ancestral range reconstruction of Caribbean Micrathena.

opencc-zeroFeb 2022View details →

Changes in the structure of seed dispersal networks when including interaction outcomes from both plant and animal perspectives

Interaction frequency is the most common currency in quantitative ecological networks, although interaction quality can also affect benefits provided by mutualisms. Here, we evaluate if interaction quality can modify network topology, species' role and whether such changes affect community vulnerability to species loss. We use a well-examined study system (bird-lizard and fleshy-fruited plants in the 'thermophilous' woodland of the Canary Islands) to compare network and species-level metrics from a network based on fruit consumption rates (Interaction Frequency, IF), against networks reflecting functional outcomes: a Seed Dispersal Effectiveness network (SDE) quantifying recruitment, and a Fruit Resource Provisioning network (FRP), accounting for the nutrient supply of fruits. Nestedness decreased in the FRP and the SDE networks, due to the lack of association between fruit consumption rates and (1) nutrient content, and (2) recruitment at the seed deposition sites, respectively. The FRP network showed lower niche overlap due to resource use complementarity among frugivores. Interaction evenness was lower in the SDE network, in response to a higher dominance of lizards in the recruitment of heliophilous species. Such changes, however, did not result in enhanced vulnerability against extinctions. At the plant species level, strength changed in the FRP network in frequently consumed or highly nutritious species. The number of effective partners decreased for species whose seeds were deposited in unsuitable places for recruitment. In frugivores, strength was consistent across networks (SDE vs IF), showing that consumption rates outweighed differences in dispersal quality. In the case of lizards, the increased importance of nutrient-rich species resulted in a higher number of effective partners. Our work shows that although frequency strongly impacts interaction effects, accounting for quality improves our inferences about interaction assembly and species role. Thus, future studies including interaction outcomes from both partners' perspectives will provide valuable insights about the net effects of mutualistic interactions.