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Differential tissue stiffness of body column facilitates locomotion of Hydra on solid substrates
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Gravitational energy harvesting from hydrostatic water columns
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Mean annual Secchi depth measurements in the period starting in 1969 provide a measure of water column transparency in the CalCOFI inshore and offshore areas, 1969 - 2004.
The Secchi depth provides a measure of water turbidity. Measurements are made as part of the California Fisheries Cooperative Investigations (CalCOFI). Secchi depth is measured on each station on each cruise. The mean annual is obtained by averaging stations over time and at stations defined as either inshore or offshore.
Total Thorium-234 (Th-234) taken from discrete water column samples collected during CCE Process Cruises (2006 - 2017).
Thorium-234 (Th-234) is the first long-lived (half-life = 24.1 days) daughter particle of Uranium-238 (U-238). While U-238 is conserved in the ocean (it covaries with salinity and has a half-life of 4.5 billion years), Th-234 is scavenged onto particles and hence removed from the surface ocean when those particles sink to depth. By measuring vertical profiles of total Th-234 activity in the euphotic zone and assuming steady-state between production of Th-234 from U-238 decay and removal of Th-234 on sinking particles, we can thus estimate the export of Th-234 from sampled water parcels. These measurements of Th-234 export can be converted to estimates of carbon export by multiplying by the C:Th-234 ratio of sinking particles measured at the same time and location.
Particulate organic carbon and nitrogen measurements from Go-Flo bottles sampling the water column from a zodiac during Palmer LTER station seasons at Palmer Station Antarctica, 1991 - 2012.
All organisms are composed of organic matter. Organic matter is synthesized from dissolved inorganic carbon (dissolved CO2) and inorganic nutrients by phytoplankton photosynthesis, and consumed (oxidized) by respiration by heterotrophs (zooplankton and bacteria). The organic matter in seawater is a variable mixture of dissolved and particulate organic matter (DOM and POM). Typically DOM predominates over POM by an order of magnitude, but the relative amount of POM can be highly enhanced during large phytoplankton blooms. The principal elemental components of POM include organic carbon (POC), organic nitrogen (PN), there is no particulate inorganic N) and phosphorus (POP). These elements exist in a relatively stable, characteristic ratio of 106:6:1 (C:N:P) in seawater, known as the Redfield Ratio. Marine particulate matter is a complex mixture of live and dead plankton and detritus, and of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. POC and PN are enhanced in the euphoric zone, reflecting their origin by photosynthesis. The particulate pool is also a complex assemblage of particles of different sizes, shapes and densities. A simplified scheme divides the particles into large, rapidly sinking particles (10s - 100s of meters per day) and smaller, suspended particles. The transition between small particles and dissolved organic matter is typically specified by filtration through GF/F filters. POC and PN are analyzed for all samples in the upper 50 meters at Palmer Station B (75 m depth) and the upper 65 m at Station E (200 m depth). There is a gradient of POM from higher values inshore to much lower values in deep ocean water beyond the continental shelf break (sampled on the annual cruise).
Bacterial properties in discrete water column samples collected during Palmer LTER station seasons at Palmer Station Antarctica, 2002 - 2019.
The microbial biogeochemistry component of PAL focuses on marine bacterioplankton, and is thus a counterpart to the phytoplankton and zooplankton components, which together provide a detailed and comprehensive description of plankton ecology in PAL-LTER. Bacteria and Archaea (hereafter called "bacteria") are taxonomically and metabolically diverse. In coastal and offshore surface waters Bacteria generally predominate over Archaea, but Archaea are equal or greater in abundance in the mesopelagic layer below the euphoric zone. We focus on aerobic, heterotrophic bacteria in the upper 65 m at Palmer Station which oxidize recently-produced low molecular weight dissolved organic compounds released by phytoplankton and zooplankton, decomposing them back into CO2 and inorganic nutrients. Globally, marine bacteria respire an amount of carbon roughly equal to about half the daily photosynthetic production. In cold polar waters, relative bacterial activity is lower, with bacterial biomass production being equal to <5% of the daily photosynthesis. The ratio at lower latitudes is 10-20%. The factors responsible for this contrast are not entirely clear. Resolving this pattern is a key aim of the PAL microbial component. At Palmer Station, bacterial production is low (< 10 mgC/m2/d) in the winter (polar night) when there is little if any photosynthesis. There is a climatological (2003-14 average) summer peak of 50-60 mgC/m2/d in January-February but with considerable seasonal and annual variability. The 2016/2017 season data contains bacteria abundances for preserved samples for comparison to abundances from live samples. See the documentation for this in the accompanying file, 2016_live_vs_preserved.pdf.
Bacterial properties in discrete water column samples at selected depths, collected aboard Palmer LTER annual cruises off the coast of the Western Antarctica Peninsula, 2003 - 2019.
The microbial biogeochemistry component of PAL focuses on marine bacterioplankton, and is thus a counterpart to the phytoplankton and zooplankton components, which together provide a detailed and comprehensive description of plankton ecology in PAL-LTER. Bacteria and Archaea (hereafter called "bacteria") are taxonomically and metabolically diverse. In coastal and offshore surface waters Bacteria generally predominate over Archaea, but Archaea are equal or greater in abundance in the mesopelagic layer below the euphoric zone. We focus on aerobic, heterotrophic bacteria in the upper 100 m on the annual summer cruise. These bacteria oxidize recently-produced low molecular weight dissolved organic compounds released by phytoplankton and zooplankton, decomposing them back into CO2 and inorganic nutrients. Globally, marine bacteria respire an amount of carbon roughly equal to about half the daily photosynthetic production. In cold polar waters, relative bacterial activity is lower, with bacterial biomass production being equal to <5% of the daily photosynthesis. The ratio at lower latitudes is 10-20%. The factors responsible for this contrast are not entirely clear. Resolving this pattern is a key aim of the PAL microbial component. Bacterial production is generally low across the grid, relative to primary production, but with considerable spatial and annual variability. Discrete BP can reach >200mgC/m2/d following bloom-fueled high organic matter events. Across the grid and over years, BP is highly correlated with chlorophyll, highlighting the close relationship with phytoplanktonic organic matter production.
Dissolved oxygen of discrete water column samples at selected depths collected aboard Palmer LTER annual cruises off the coast of the Western Antarctic Peninsula, 1993 - 2012.
Oxygen is produced by phytoplankton photosynthesis and consumed by respiration of phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria. Oxygen also enters and exits the ocean via physical exchange with the atmosphere. Oxygen concentrations in the surface ocean may be supersaturated by photosynthesis and turbulence enhancing air-sea exchange via bubble injection; or undersaturated due to excess respiration. In cases where exchange with the atmosphere is limited, and/or respiration exceeds photosynthesis, oxygen concentration can be reduced to very low levels (hypoxia) or entirely depleted (anoxia). This is uncommon in cold Antarctic Seas where respiration is depressed and oxygen solubility is enhanced by low temperature. Different water masses have characteristic oxygen concentrations which serve as tracers for diagnosing physical mixing and advection. Dissolved oxygen was analyzed by Winkler Titration (see Methods) in CTD-Rosette bottle samples at all depths sampled until 2012. This measurement was discontinued in 2013. The CTD has duplicate oxygen electrodes that provide continuous vertical profiles of oxygen concentration at all depths on all casts. The vessel also has continuous underway, Optode determination of dissolved oxygen in the surface (ship's intake at 6 meters depth) on all cruises. Finally we now routinely measure net community production by Equilibrator Inlet Mass Spectroscopy (EIMS) on LTER cruises
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) taken from discrete water column samples collected during annual cruise along western Antarctic Peninsula, 2003-2012.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a poorly-characterized but large and dynamic pool of actively-cycling carbon in the oceans, and one of the largest organic carbon pools on the planet. The total DOC pool consists of three major fractions: refractory DOC resistant to microbial oxidation with a turnover time of millennia; semi-labile DOC, produced and decomposed on seasonal timescales, and labile DOC, consisting of simple, recently-produced compounds with nanomolar concentrations, and turnover times of minutes-days. The background concentration of refractory DOC in the deep ocean is 35-45 micromolar. DOC concentration in the upper 100-200 meters is enhanced by 10-50 micromolar with the addition of semilabile DOC. In subtropical and temperate oceans, semilabile DOC can form an important part of the carbon export by deep vertical mixing into the oceanic mid-depths. Concentrations of semilabile DOC are lower in the polar Southern Ocean than in most other regions.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) taken from discrete water column samples collected between October and April at Palmer Station, 2002-2012.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a poorly-characterized but large and dynamic pool of actively-cycling carbon in the oceans, and one of the largest organic carbon pools on the planet. The total DOC pool consists of three major fractions: refractory DOC resistant to microbial oxidation with a turnover time of millennia; semi-labile DOC, produced and decomposed on seasonal timescales, and labile DOC, consisting of simple, recently-produced compounds with nanomolar concentrations, and turnover times of minutes-days. The background concentration of refractory DOC in the deep ocean is 35-45 micromolar. DOC concentration in the upper 100-200 meters is enhanced by 10-50 micromolar with the addition of semilabile DOC. In subtropical and temperate oceans, semilabile DOC can form an important part of the carbon export by deep vertical mixing into the oceanic mid-depths. Concentrations of semilabile DOC are lower in the polar Southern Ocean than in most other regions.
Appendix Measurements for species of Breviphysoderes gen. nov., Macrophysoderes gen. nov., Nanophysoderes gen. nov., Paraphysoderes Villiers, 1962 and Physoderes Westwood, 1945 (in mm). Numbers in parentheses beside mean values refer to sample size. SD = Standard deviation. In the USI column, UCR _ ENT catalogue numbers are referred to by the number only. in Uncovering hidden diversity: phylogeny and taxonomy of Physoderinae (Reduviidae, Heteroptera), with emphasis on Physoderes Westwood in the Oriental and Australasian regions
<p><b>Appendix</b> Measurements for species of <i>Breviphysoderes</i> gen. nov., <i>Macrophysoderes</i> gen. nov., <i>Nanophysoderes</i> gen. nov., <i>Paraphysoderes</i> Villiers, 1962 and <i>Physoderes</i> Westwood, 1945 (in mm). Numbers in parentheses beside mean values refer to sample size. SD = Standard deviation. In the USI column, UCR _ENT catalogue numbers are referred to by the number only.</p><table><thead><tr><th>Species</th><th>Sex</th><th>USI</th><th>Total Length</th><th>Head length</th><th>Eye length</th><th>Eye width</th><th>Anterior lobe (l)</th><th colspan="2">Pronotum Anterior Posterior lobe (w) lobe (l)</th><th>Posterior lobe (w)</th><th>Hemelytron length</th><th>Scape length</th><th>Interocular distance</th><th>Postocular lobe width</th><th>Abdomen width</th></tr><tr><th colspan="16"><b><i>Breviphysoderes</i> gen. nov.</b></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th><i>B. decora</i></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.19</td><td>2.02</td><td>0.40</td><td>1.06</td><td>0.98</td><td>2.18</td><td>1.08</td><td>2.96</td><td>5.41</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.88</td><td>3.76</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.33</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.20</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.81</td><td>1.79</td><td>0.38</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.90</td><td>2.06</td><td>0.89</td><td>2.75</td><td>5.12</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.56</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.53</td><td>2.24</td><td>0.46</td><td>1.11</td><td>1.09</td><td>2.32</td><td>1.26</td><td>3.14</td><td>5.63</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.94</td><td>4.05</td></tr><tr><th><i>B. mjoebergi</i></th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (3)</td><td>7.91</td><td>1.62</td><td>0.37</td><td>0.96</td><td>0.89</td><td>2.02</td><td>1.11</td><td>2.74</td><td>4.41</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.83</td><td>3.31</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.43</td><td>0.21</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.24</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.41</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.23</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.49</td><td>1.39</td><td>0.36</td><td>0.95</td><td>0.77</td><td>1.96</td><td>0.94</td><td>2.61</td><td>3.96</td><td>0.50</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.79</td><td>3.06</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.35</td><td>1.82</td><td>0.39</td><td>1.00</td><td>0.97</td><td>2.08</td><td>1.38</td><td>2.88</td><td>4.77</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.50</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>8.76</td><td>1.82</td><td>0.47</td><td>1.03</td><td>1.00</td><td>2.23</td><td>1.08</td><td>2.91</td><td>5.03</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.61</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.76</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.69</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.22</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.40</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.91</td><td>1.68</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.98</td><td>0.87</td><td>1.97</td><td>0.97</td><td>2.63</td><td>4.36</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.84</td><td>3.31</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.23</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.38</td><td>1.07</td><td>1.50</td><td>3.18</td><td>1.24</td><td>3.35</td><td>6.20</td><td>0.69</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.93</td><td>4.07</td></tr><tr><th><i>B. vestita</i></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.13</td><td>1.84</td><td>0.33</td><td>1.01</td><td>1.06</td><td>2.29</td><td>1.09</td><td>2.89</td><td>5.46</td><td>0.60</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.88</td><td>3.95</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.30</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.16</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.74</td><td>1.57</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.99</td><td>1.01</td><td>2.05</td><td>1.02</td><td>2.73</td><td>5.26</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.83</td><td>3.73</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.54</td><td>2.04</td><td>0.38</td><td>1.04</td><td>1.12</td><td>2.46</td><td>1.18</td><td>3.08</td><td>5.58</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.67</td><td>0.92</td><td>4.15</td></tr><tr><th><b><i>Macrophysoderes</i> gen. nov.</b></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><i>M. cirripilosa</i> gen. et sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (16)</td><td>8.7</td><td>1.66</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.98</td><td>0.95</td><td>2.24</td><td>1.01</td><td>2.82</td><td>5.32</td><td>0.46</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.25</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.21</td><td>0.45</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.24</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.8</td><td>1.45</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.84</td><td>0.81</td><td>1.88</td><td>0.77</td><td>2.4</td><td>4.71</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.79</td><td>2.72</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.85</td><td>1.99</td><td>0.39</td><td>1.05</td><td>1.14</td><td>2.62</td><td>1.32</td><td>3.16</td><td>6.05</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.91</td><td>3.62</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (21)</td><td>9.04</td><td>1.67</td><td>0.35</td><td>1.01</td><td>0.94</td><td>2.23</td><td>1.05</td><td>2.88</td><td>5.61</td><td>0.48</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.89</td><td>3.7</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>1.12</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.31</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.42</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.16</td><td>1.27</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.88</td><td>0.72</td><td>1.79</td><td>0.69</td><td>2.43</td><td>4.04</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.81</td><td>2.91</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>11.01</td><td>1.97</td><td>0.46</td><td>1.17</td><td>1.15</td><td>2.79</td><td>1.28</td><td>3.47</td><td>7.04</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.79</td><td>1.04</td><td>4.43</td></tr><tr><th><i>M. elongata</i> gen. et sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5) SD Minimum Maximum</td><td>10.29 0.47 9.98 11.11</td><td>1.77 0.13 1.57 1.88</td><td>0.36 0.03 0.32 0.39</td><td>1.02 0.03 0.97 1.06</td><td>1.06 0.15 0.91 1.29</td><td>2.78 0.25 2.49 2.98</td><td>1.33 0.06 1.24 1.4</td><td>3.28 0.17 3.04 3.49</td><td>6.64 0.37 6.36 7.28</td><td>0.52 0.03 0.49 0.57</td><td>0.65 0.05 0.57 0.69</td><td>0.94 0.01 0.93 0.96</td><td>3.74 0.2 3.51 4.03</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (4) SD Minimum Maximum</td><td>9.89 0.4 9.47 10.41</td><td>1.77 0.1 1.66 1.86</td><td>0.33 0.04 0.28 0.38</td><td>0.99 0.02 0.98 1.02</td><td>0.98 0.13 0.87 1.13</td><td>2.49 0.11 2.34 2.61</td><td>1.12 0.05 1.05 1.15</td><td>3.07 0.15 2.93 3.21</td><td>6.39 0.42 6.08 7</td><td>0.45 0.06 0.37 0.5</td><td>0.66 0 0.65 0.66</td><td>0.91 0.04 0.85 0.95</td><td>3.76 0.19 3.51 3.91</td></tr><tr><th><i>M. finisterre</i> gen. et sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5) SD Minimum Maximum</td><td>8.85 0.38 8.4 9.36</td><td>1.66 0.1 1.51 1.76</td><td>0.33 0.04 0.3 0.38</td><td>0.96 0.05 0.89 1.02</td><td>0.92 0.04 0.89 0.99</td><td>2.14 0.14 1.92 2.29</td><td>1.11 0.15 0.94 1.32</td><td>2.81 0.14 2.59 2.96</td><td>5.36 0.38 4.97 5.84</td><td>0.48 0.04 0.43 0.54</td><td>0.62 0.01 0.6 0.64</td><td>0.82 0.06 0.75 0.9</td><td>3.23 0.19 2.92 3.38</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5) SD Minimum Maximum</td><td>9.12 0.48 8.53 9.8</td><td>1.74 0.02 1.71 1.76</td><td>0.35 0.04 0.3 0.4</td><td>0.99 0.04 0.95 1.04</td><td>0.98 0.07 0.91 1.08</td><td>2.14 0.13 2.05 2.36</td><td>1.12 0.14 0.98 1.35</td><td>2.86 0.18 2.74 3.18</td><td>5.52 0.39 4.94 5.97</td><td>0.48 0.05 0.43 0.55</td><td>0.64 0.04 0.6 0.67</td><td>0.85 0.04 0.8 0.92</td><td>3.7 0.25 3.43 4.11</td></tr><tr><th><i>M. histrionica</i></th><td>♂</td><td>00018520</td><td>8.5</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>2.8</td><td>5</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><th><i>M. grandis</i> gen. et sp. nov.</th><td>♂ ♀</td><td>00052314 00073625</td><td>11.58 12.66</td><td>1.59 2.02</td><td>0.48 0.5</td><td>1.31 1.33</td><td>1.03 1.33</td><td>2.65 2.82</td><td>1.64 1.69</td><td>3.74 4.03</td><td>7.71 8.21</td><td>0.75 0.75</td><td>0.62 0.67</td><td>1.01 1.01</td><td>4.28 4.86</td></tr><tr><th><i>M. modesta</i></th><td>♂ ♀</td><td>00069386 00069384</td><td>9.45 -1.82</td><td>1.94 2.13</td><td>0.35 0.36</td><td>1.06 1.28</td><td>1.08 1.24</td><td>2.14 2.56</td><td>1.27 1.52</td><td>2.95 3.71</td><td>5.49 7.37</td><td>0.52 0.58</td><td>0.59 0.73</td><td>0.88 0.96</td><td>3.46 4.47</td></tr><tr><th><i>M. monticola</i></th><td>♂ ♀</td><td>00069387 Mean (3) SD Minimum Maximum</td><td>10.34 9.88 0.72 9.11 10.53</td><td>1.81 1.98 0.11 1.89 2.11</td><td>0.29 0.35 0.01 0.34 0.37</td><td>1.06 1.08 0.06 1.02 1.13</td><td>0.96 0.93 0.09 0.84 1</td><td>2.29 2.32 0.2 2.1 2.48</td><td>1.37 1.26 0.22 1.06 1.49</td><td>3.36 3.24 0.29 2.93 3.51</td><td>6.35 5.99 0.3 5.65 6.21</td><td>0.49 0.47 0.02 0.44 0.49</td><td>0.63 0.66 0.04 0.62 0.69</td><td>0.91 0.93 0.02 0.91 0.96</td><td>4.19 4 0.34 3.68 4.36</td></tr><tr><th><b><i>Nanophysoderes</i> gen. nov.</b> <i>N. dentiscutum</i></th><td>♂</td><td>00037370</td><td>7.66</td><td>1.55</td><td>0.33</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.76</td><td>1.86</td><td>0.86</td><td>2.34</td><td>4.58</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.79</td><td>2.8</td></tr><tr><th><i>Paraphysoderes</i></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><i>Pa. popeye</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>00073584</td><td>7.09</td><td>1.27</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.83</td><td>0.78</td><td>1.57</td><td>0.84</td><td>2.22</td><td>4.35</td><td>0.43</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.69</td><td>2.56</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>7.89</td><td>1.55</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.98</td><td>1</td><td>1.96</td><td>0.84</td><td>2.61</td><td>4.69</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.76</td><td>3.32</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.21</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.14</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.47</td><td>1.25</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.95</td><td>0.95</td><td>1.8</td><td>0.76</td><td>2.5</td><td>4.46</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.75</td><td>3.17</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.41</td><td>1.83</td><td>0.33</td><td>1.01</td><td>1.1</td><td>2.25</td><td>0.93</td><td>2.77</td><td>5.02</td><td>0.61</td><td>0.69</td><td>0.78</td><td>3.54</td></tr><tr><th><i>Physoderes</i></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><i>P.anamalaiensis</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.27</td><td>1.93</td><td>0.32</td><td>1.01</td><td>1.33</td><td>2.85</td><td>0.87</td><td>2.83</td><td>5.44</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.56</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.36</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.13</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.91</td><td>1.87</td><td>0.28</td><td>0.98</td><td>1.23</td><td>2.45</td><td>0.73</td><td>2.64</td><td>5.17</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.82</td><td>3.41</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.82</td><td>1.97</td><td>0.35</td><td>1.05</td><td>1.46</td><td>3.1</td><td>1.02</td><td>2.96</td><td>5.62</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.67</td><td>0.89</td><td>3.74</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.13</td><td>1.97</td><td>0.33</td><td>0.97</td><td>1.13</td><td>2.51</td><td>0.96</td><td>2.84</td><td>5.24</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.77</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.19</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.92</td><td>1.85</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.94</td><td>1.07</td><td>2.31</td><td>0.77</td><td>2.75</td><td>5.03</td><td>0.47</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.55</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.59</td><td>2.14</td><td>0.36</td><td>1.03</td><td>1.17</td><td>2.72</td><td>1.1</td><td>2.99</td><td>5.48</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.74</td><td>0.91</td><td>4.07</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. azrael</i></th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>8.58</td><td>1.63</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.97</td><td>2.58</td><td>0.94</td><td>2.75</td><td>5.29</td><td>0.39</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.1</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.13</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.39</td><td>1.52</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.86</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.33</td><td>0.83</td><td>2.6</td><td>5.11</td><td>0.36</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.82</td><td>2.94</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.76</td><td>1.7</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.91</td><td>1.05</td><td>2.71</td><td>1</td><td>2.87</td><td>5.49</td><td>0.41</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.88</td><td>3.24</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>8.61</td><td>1.61</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.86</td><td>2.13</td><td>0.92</td><td>2.68</td><td>5.41</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.86</td><td>3.21</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.06</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.14</td><td>1.51</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.83</td><td>0.8</td><td>2.04</td><td>0.85</td><td>2.55</td><td>5.13</td><td>0.36</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.84</td><td>3.13</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.83</td><td>1.67</td><td>0.31</td><td>0.93</td><td>0.91</td><td>2.22</td><td>0.96</td><td>2.77</td><td>5.64</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.88</td><td>3.26</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. brevipennis</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>6.61</td><td>1.77</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.93</td><td>1.28</td><td>2.98</td><td>0.78</td><td>2.6</td><td>2.72</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.44</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.24</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>6.08</td><td>1.67</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.88</td><td>1.21</td><td>2.76</td><td>0.71</td><td>2.47</td><td>2.41</td><td>0.46</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.81</td><td>3.19</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>7.07</td><td>2.01</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.98</td><td>1.44</td><td>3.25</td><td>0.82</td><td>2.8</td><td>3.05</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.91</td><td>3.83</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>6.53</td><td>1.69</td><td>0.31</td><td>0.96</td><td>1.11</td><td>2.49</td><td>0.81</td><td>2.54</td><td>2.71</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.89</td><td>3.8</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.32</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>6.29</td><td>1.49</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.91</td><td>0.98</td><td>2.19</td><td>0.73</td><td>2.31</td><td>2.31</td><td>0.46</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.84</td><td>3.42</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>6.73</td><td>1.87</td><td>0.34</td><td>1.01</td><td>1.2</td><td>2.65</td><td>0.91</td><td>2.66</td><td>2.97</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.68</td><td>0.93</td><td>4.14</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. curculionis</i></th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (7)</td><td>7.64</td><td>1.56</td><td>0.28</td><td>0.86</td><td>1.02</td><td>2.53</td><td>0.78</td><td>2.59</td><td>4.48</td><td>0.37</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.81</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.21</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.21</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.37</td><td>1.46</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.94</td><td>2.37</td><td>0.64</td><td>2.5</td><td>4.15</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.78</td><td>2.68</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>7.9</td><td>1.67</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.88</td><td>1.11</td><td>2.74</td><td>0.93</td><td>2.69</td><td>4.63</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.83</td><td>3.35</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (9)</td><td>7.47</td><td>1.52</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.86</td><td>0.91</td><td>2.19</td><td>0.86</td><td>2.54</td><td>4.46</td><td>0.39</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.82</td><td>3.14</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.26</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.23</td><td>1.38</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.79</td><td>2.07</td><td>0.72</td><td>2.46</td><td>4.12</td><td>0.36</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.77</td><td>2.5</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>7.68</td><td>1.61</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.92</td><td>1.07</td><td>2.36</td><td>1.01</td><td>2.7</td><td>4.68</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.39</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. fuliginosa</i></th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>10.47</td><td>2.01</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.99</td><td>1.45</td><td>3.42</td><td>1.15</td><td>3.31</td><td>6.24</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.94</td><td>3.82</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.36</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.28</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>9.84</td><td>1.89</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.93</td><td>1.22</td><td>2.85</td><td>1.06</td><td>3.1</td><td>5.84</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.89</td><td>3.54</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>11.03</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.36</td><td>1.04</td><td>1.69</td><td>4</td><td>1.28</td><td>3.63</td><td>6.56</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.74</td><td>1.01</td><td>4.19</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>10.14</td><td>2</td><td>0.38</td><td>1.01</td><td>1</td><td>2.39</td><td>1.34</td><td>3.2</td><td>6.2</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.92</td><td>4.04</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.37</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.26</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>9.59</td><td>1.92</td><td>0.33</td><td>0.93</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.19</td><td>1.22</td><td>3</td><td>5.72</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.88</td><td>3.8</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.89</td><td>2.03</td><td>0.44</td><td>1.12</td><td>1.1</td><td>2.6</td><td>1.54</td><td>3.4</td><td>6.68</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.74</td><td>0.98</td><td>4.47</td></tr><tr><th><i>P.minime</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>8.64</td><td>2.01</td><td>0.31</td><td>0.89</td><td>1.23</td><td>2.83</td><td>0.98</td><td>2.74</td><td>4.72</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.61</td><td>0.86</td><td>3.3</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.28</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.1</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.31</td><td>1.9</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.88</td><td>1.18</td><td>2.73</td><td>0.93</td><td>2.64</td><td>4.54</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.84</td><td>3.19</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.03</td><td>2.12</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.9</td><td>1.28</td><td>2.97</td><td>1.07</td><td>2.82</td><td>5.13</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.46</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>8.29</td><td>1.88</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.87</td><td>0.89</td><td>2.07</td><td>1.04</td><td>2.6</td><td>4.77</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.58</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.16</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.1</td><td>1.7</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.79</td><td>0.81</td><td>1.98</td><td>0.96</td><td>2.48</td><td>4.48</td><td>0.47</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.82</td><td>3.31</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.54</td><td>2.05</td><td>0.38</td><td>0.94</td><td>0.98</td><td>2.15</td><td>1.19</td><td>2.7</td><td>5.11</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.69</td><td>0.94</td><td>3.71</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. muluensis</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (4)</td><td>7.35</td><td>1.73</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.91</td><td>0.9</td><td>1.95</td><td>0.95</td><td>2.43</td><td>3.96</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.82</td><td>2.83</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.18</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>6.99</td><td>1.46</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.84</td><td>0.77</td><td>1.82</td><td>0.93</td><td>2.26</td><td>3.61</td><td>0.46</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.74</td><td>2.61</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>7.59</td><td>1.87</td><td>0.33</td><td>0.96</td><td>1.04</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.99</td><td>2.56</td><td>4.35</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.93</td><td>3.01</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (3)</td><td>7.92</td><td>1.75</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.95</td><td>1</td><td>2.05</td><td>0.95</td><td>2.59</td><td>4.32</td><td>0.48</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.34</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.08</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>7.67</td><td>1.72</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.95</td><td>1.98</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.55</td><td>4.02</td><td>0.45</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.81</td><td>3.28</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.21</td><td>1.83</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.99</td><td>1.06</td><td>2.15</td><td>1.06</td><td>2.62</td><td>4.5</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.69</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.43</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. mysorensis</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (3)</td><td>10.82</td><td>2.05</td><td>0.36</td><td>1.07</td><td>1.62</td><td>3.69</td><td>1.12</td><td>3.54</td><td>6.43</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.72</td><td>0.93</td><td>4.14</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.21</td><td>0</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.32</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>10.69</td><td>1.92</td><td>0.27</td><td>1.03</td><td>1.51</td><td>3.44</td><td>1.01</td><td>3.41</td><td>6.3</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.71</td><td>0.89</td><td>3.92</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.96</td><td>2.14</td><td>0.42</td><td>1.12</td><td>1.71</td><td>3.95</td><td>1.21</td><td>3.63</td><td>6.67</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.73</td><td>0.97</td><td>4.37</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (2)</td><td>10.7</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.34</td><td>1.08</td><td>1.45</td><td>3.11</td><td>1.17</td><td>3.56</td><td>6.48</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.66</td><td>1</td><td>4.3</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.01</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>10.52</td><td>2</td><td>0.32</td><td>1.04</td><td>1.35</td><td>3.05</td><td>1.05</td><td>3.51</td><td>6.45</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.58</td><td>1</td><td>4.3</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.88</td><td>2.15</td><td>0.36</td><td>1.12</td><td>1.56</td><td>3.16</td><td>1.29</td><td>3.61</td><td>6.52</td><td>0.61</td><td>0.74</td><td>1.01</td><td>4.3</td></tr><tr><th><i>P.nigripennis</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.12</td><td>1.89</td><td>0.34</td><td>1.02</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.17</td><td>1.24</td><td>2.95</td><td>5.27</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.59</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.42</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.22</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.76</td><td>1.77</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.96</td><td>0.83</td><td>2.04</td><td>1.13</td><td>2.82</td><td>5.09</td><td>0.46</td><td>0.53</td><td>0.79</td><td>3.16</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.48</td><td>1.95</td><td>0.36</td><td>1.09</td><td>1</td><td>2.28</td><td>1.32</td><td>3.07</td><td>5.45</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.89</td><td>3.72</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>10.05</td><td>1.9</td><td>0.35</td><td>1.13</td><td>0.94</td><td>2.3</td><td>1.4</td><td>3.32</td><td>6.07</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.92</td><td>4.17</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.41</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.47</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.14</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>9.6</td><td>1.88</td><td>0.33</td><td>1.1</td><td>0.83</td><td>2.22</td><td>1.32</td><td>3.2</td><td>5.65</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.89</td><td>4.05</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.65</td><td>1.97</td><td>0.37</td><td>1.16</td><td>1.05</td><td>2.4</td><td>1.56</td><td>3.49</td><td>6.8</td><td>0.71</td><td>0.67</td><td>0.93</td><td>4.41</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. nigroalbus</i></th><td>♀</td><td>00040566</td><td>9.74</td><td>1.88</td><td>0.29</td><td>1</td><td>1.03</td><td>2.24</td><td>1.17</td><td>2.95</td><td>6.01</td><td>0.41</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.94</td><td>3.66</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. notata</i></th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.94</td><td>1.81</td><td>0.32</td><td>1.02</td><td>1.24</td><td>3.17</td><td>1.25</td><td>3.14</td><td>6.08</td><td>0.45</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.91</td><td>3.61</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.24</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>9.44</td><td>1.7</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.97</td><td>1.12</td><td>2.89</td><td>1.17</td><td>3.06</td><td>5.75</td><td>0.41</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.84</td><td>3.34</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.22</td><td>1.99</td><td>0.34</td><td>1.08</td><td>1.35</td><td>3.51</td><td>1.4</td><td>3.26</td><td>6.3</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.66</td><td>1.01</td><td>3.87</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.94</td><td>1.8</td><td>0.32</td><td>1.05</td><td>0.96</td><td>2.45</td><td>1.31</td><td>3.17</td><td>6.28</td><td>0.46</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.93</td><td>3.73</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.31</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.23</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>9.54</td><td>1.62</td><td>0.3</td><td>1.01</td><td>0.84</td><td>2.35</td><td>1.06</td><td>3</td><td>5.93</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.88</td><td>3.38</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.3</td><td>1.99</td><td>0.37</td><td>1.1</td><td>1.12</td><td>2.57</td><td>1.51</td><td>3.33</td><td>6.51</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.73</td><td>0.98</td><td>3.94</td></tr><tr><th><i>P.ractepilosa</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (2)</td><td>8.93</td><td>1.86</td><td>0.37</td><td>0.86</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.13</td><td>1</td><td>2.74</td><td>5.51</td><td>0.47</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.39</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.49</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.03</td><td>0</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.25</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.59</td><td>1.75</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.86</td><td>0.77</td><td>2.04</td><td>0.79</td><td>2.64</td><td>5.09</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.8</td><td>3.21</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>9.27</td><td>1.96</td><td>0.39</td><td>0.86</td><td>1.02</td><td>2.21</td><td>1.21</td><td>2.83</td><td>5.93</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.9</td><td>3.57</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (5)</td><td>9.19</td><td>1.99</td><td>0.37</td><td>0.93</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.23</td><td>1.1</td><td>2.99</td><td>5.47</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.84</td><td>3.86</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.67</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.21</td><td>0.47</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.26</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.32</td><td>1.83</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.82</td><td>2.02</td><td>0.97</td><td>2.66</td><td>4.89</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.43</td><td>0.81</td><td>3.44</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.19</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.4</td><td>0.97</td><td>0.97</td><td>2.37</td><td>1.27</td><td>3.22</td><td>6.2</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.85</td><td>4.1</td></tr><tr><th><i>P. tricolor</i> sp. nov.</th><td>♂</td><td>Mean (2)</td><td>8.66</td><td>1.58</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.91</td><td>0.99</td><td>2.47</td><td>1.17</td><td>2.65</td><td>5.3</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.84</td><td>2.92</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.05</td><td>0</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.17</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.55</td><td>1.56</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.88</td><td>0.93</td><td>2.42</td><td>1.16</td><td>2.61</td><td>5.26</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.82</td><td>2.8</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>8.77</td><td>1.61</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.95</td><td>1.05</td><td>2.52</td><td>1.17</td><td>2.68</td><td>5.33</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.86</td><td>3.04</td></tr><tr><th></th><td>♀</td><td>Mean (3)</td><td>9.33</td><td>1.7</td><td>0.31</td><td>0.92</td><td>0.9</td><td>2.17</td><td>1.13</td><td>2.77</td><td>5.6</td><td>0.39</td><td>0.6</td><td>0.85</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>SD</td><td>0.74</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.1</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.19</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Minimum</td><td>8.7</td><td>1.67</td><td>0.29</td><td>0.91</td><td>0.88</td><td>2.07</td><td>1.02</td><td>2.66</td><td>5.44</td><td>0.35</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.8</td><td>2.98</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Maximum</td><td>10.15</td><td>1.73</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.93</td><td>0.92</td><td>2.25</td><td>1.28</td><td>2.86</td><td>5.76</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.61</td><td>0.87</td><td>3.34</td></tr></tbody></table>
Converging Luminosity in Column-Sprite Filaments
<p>Sprites are electrical discharges in the mesosphere powered by the quasi‐electrostatic field following a cloud‐to‐ground lightning stroke. They are luminous structures with tendrils formed by a space charge wave with high electric fields that ionizes the atmosphere, excites optical emissions and leaves a trail of enhanced densities of electrons, and negative and positive ions. The duration of the luminous streamers in sprites is usually ∼1–10 ms. In this study, we present observations of sprite streamer filaments where the upper and lower ends continue to glow for more than 80 ms while the two ends slowly converge and fade. Simultaneous magnetic observations suggest that the field in the mesosphere is maintained at a high value by the long‐lasting continuing current of the causative stroke. We propose that the observation is a signature of currents in the filaments fed by electrons detached from negative ions at the lower origin.</p>
Data from: The Palaeozoic colonization of the water column and the rise of global nekton
The colonization of the water column is among the most important transformations in the evolution of animal life and global ecosystems. The Devonian Nekton Revolution (DNR) has been identified as a major macroevolutionary event signifying the sudden occupation of the water column by independent radiations of swimming animals. Using new data, an expanded taxonomic coverage, sample standardization, and increased ecological resolution, we reanalysed the timing, duration, and magnitude of this event. We find that nekton and eunekton were well established prior to the Devonian and did not diversify dramatically during any Palaeozoic interval. Relative nektic diversity and occurrences decreased rather than increased during the Devonian. Eunektic diversity and occurrences increased throughout the Palaeozoic, but this rise was protracted and cannot be attributed to any single interval. Our new data indicate that the metazoan colonization of the water column was considerably more complex and gradual than previously understood.
Data from: Spectral and temporal acoustic features modulate response irregularities within primary auditory cortex columns
Assemblies of vertically connected neurons in the cerebral cortex form information processing units (columns) that participate in the distribution and segregation of sensory signals. Despite well-accepted models of columnar architecture, functional mechanisms of inter-laminar communication remain poorly understood. Hence, the purpose of the present investigation was to examine the effects of sensory information features on columnar response properties. Using acute recording techniques, extracellular response activity was collected from the right hemisphere of eight mature cats (felis catus). Recordings were conducted with multichannel electrodes that permitted the simultaneous acquisition of neuronal activity within primary auditory cortex columns. Neuronal responses to simple (pure tones), complex (noise burst and frequency modulated sweeps), and ecologically relevant (con-specific vocalizations) acoustic signals were measured. Collectively, the present investigation demonstrates that despite consistencies in neuronal tuning (characteristic frequency), irregularities in discharge activity between neurons of individual A1 columns increase as a function of spectral (signal complexity) and temporal (duration) acoustic variations.
Data from: The evolution of the dicynodont sacrum: constraint and innovation in the synapsid axial column
Constraint is a universal feature of morphological evolution. The vertebral column of synapsids (mammals and their close relatives) is a classic example of this phenotypic restriction, with greatly reduced variation in the number of vertebrae compared to the sauropsid lineage. Synapsids generally possess only three sacral vertebrae, which articulate with the ilium and play a key role in locomotion. Dicynodont anomodonts are the exception to this rule, possessing seven or more sacral vertebrae while reaching a range of body sizes rivaled among synapsids only by therian mammals. Here we explore the evolution of this unusual sacral morphology in dicynodonts by 1) hypothesizing homologies of the additional sacral vertebrae, 2) using ancestral state reconstruction and phylogenetic regressions (e.g., logistic regression, Poisson regression) to track the coevolution of sacral count and body size, and 3) proposing mechanisms by which additional sacral vertebrae were incorporated during dicynodont evolution. We find that sacral vertebra morphology covaries with sacral count in consistent ways across dicynodonts, implying that sacra with a given number of vertebrae are composed of homologous elements. There is a correlation between increased sacral count and larger body size, especially at the shift from four to five sacrals near the origin of Bidentalia. Based on position, morphology, and the consistent number of presacral vertebrae among dicynodonts, we hypothesize that the additional sacrals anterior to the plesiomorphic three are duplications of the first sacral, and that a single caudosacral was incorporated by a shift in the identity of the anteriormost caudal vertebra. Although changes in sacral count appear to be correlated with shifts in body size in dicynodonts, the evolution of general morphological conservativism in the synapsid sacrum remains to be further explored.
Column Ruins - St. Mary's Abbey, York II
More ruins. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Figure 05 (second column, l_d/D_s = 2.5)
<p>Splash and Worthington jet chronophotography capturing the parallel water entry of two hydrophobic spheres dropped from a height of 25 cm (WeI=1360.8; ReI=49670; FrI=5.0) at intervals of Dt=5 ms.</p>
The Harmonized Atmospheric Ozone Column Concentration Dataset from 2005 to 2022 with OMI and Sentinel-5P TROPOMI products on the Tibetan Plateau
Open the record for dataset details and reuse information.
Column
Ancient column with 2k textures. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Dataset: Modification of Gradient HPLC Method for Determination of Small Molecules' Affinity to Human Serum Albumin under Column Safety Conditions: Robustness and Chemometrics Study
<p>Dataset for publication.</p> <p> </p>
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Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
DANDI is a BRAIN Initiative archive for publishing and sharing neurophysiology data, including electrophysiology, optophysiology, and behavioral data packaged as NWB and related standards.
International Brain Laboratory public data
The International Brain Laboratory public data releases expose standardized mouse decision-making experiments, including Neuropixels recordings, widefield calcium imaging, behavior, and session metadata accessed through the ONE API.
OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.