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Figure 4 in Studies on the predatory biology of Oriental dacetine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) II. Novel prey specialization in Pyramica benten

Figure 4. Comparison of collembolan compositions hunted and available at Tetsugakudo, Tokyo. Specimens in 1981 and 1982 were combined. (A) Collembolans hunted by Pyramica benten in June–July; (B) those hunted in August–October; (C) collembolans extracted from the soil samples in June–July; (D) those extracted from August–October samples. Specimens were classified into Entomobrya pulcherrima, other Entmobryidae, Tomocerus varius, and the other species. Some specimens were not identified.

Figure 3 in Pollen feeding larvae in the presumed predatory syrphine genus Toxomerus Macquart (Diptera, Syrphidae)

Figure 3. Young larva of Toxomerus apegiensis moving along the male spikelets of Olyra obliquifolia. Its pale yellow gut contents can be seen shining through its somewhat translucent body.

Figure 6 in Studies on the predatory biology of Oriental dacetine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) II. Novel prey specialization in Pyramica benten

Figure 6. Body-smearing behaviour in P. benten. (A) Worker scraping the anterior head dorsum with the right foreleg tarsus (t) which is brought over the right antenna (a); both antennae are almost folded. Organic material (m, a decayed insect head capsule? attached with some chitinous fragments) is held in the mandibles. (B) Organic material, 0.3 mm long, used in body smearing by P. benten worker in a laboratory nest. It appears to be the faeces of an undetermined soil animal.

Figure 2 in Studies on the predatory biology of Oriental dacetine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) II. Novel prey specialization in Pyramica benten

Figure 2. Predation of Collembola by Pyramica benten. (A) Worker carrying a prey collembolan (Entomobrya pulcherrima) hunted by seizing around its mouthparts. Photographed in the field (Tetsugakudo, Tokyo). Worker body length is about 2 mm. (B) Collembolan body regions seized by P. benten foragers observed when they retrieved the prey to their nests. Studied at Tetsugakudo. Observation with a hand lens confirmed that 39 (80%) of 49 collembolans were seized in the head region. Moreover, 14 of those 39 captures were certainly made at the circumference of their mouthparts.

Figure 1 in Studies on the predatory biology of Oriental dacetine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) II. Novel prey specialization in Pyramica benten

Figure 1. Proportions of prey items retrieved by foragers of Pyramica benten (A) and Strumigenys lewisi (B) to their nests studied in Tetsugakudo Park, Tokyo, 1980–1982.

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F in Predatory behaviour of gekkonid lizards, Ptyodactylus spp., towards the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus, and their tolerance of its venom

F. 2. Adult male gecko, Ptyodactylus puiseuxi, from the Golan, handling scorpions, Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus (measured without the metasoma or 'tail'), in the observation arena. (a) Manipulating a 15 mm-long scorpion, after initial grabbing and releasing. (b) Grabbing an 11 mm-long scorpion crosswise. (c) This 13 mm-long scorpion was grabbed crosswise with pincers and tail jutting out, and after being held for 100 s is being swallowed. (d) Manipulation towards swallowing a 15 mm-long scorpion, after initial grabbing and releasing.

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F in Predatory behaviour of gekkonid lizards, Ptyodactylus spp., towards the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus, and their tolerance of its venom

F. 1. Scorpions in the stomach contents of a gecko, adult female Ptyodactylus guttatus from Sede Boqer (from the material of Perry, 1979). The contents included 16 termites, three scorpions, three isopodes and two myriapodes (scale, cm and mm).

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Fig. 1 in Identification of Twelve Species of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) Predatory on Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in Mexico, and Submission of Reference Coi Sequences

Fig. 1. Coccinellid predators of Melanaphis sacchari in cultivated sorghum in Mexico. A) Brachiacantha decora, B) Coccinella septempunctata, C) Coleomegilla maculata lengi, D) Cycloneda sanguinea sanguinea, E) Diomus roseicollis, F) Diomus terminatus, G) Exochomus childreni guexi, H) Harmonia axyridis, I) Hippodamia convergens, J) Olla v-nigrum, K) Scymnus (Pullus) dozieri, and L) Scymnus (Pullus) loewii.

Figure 14 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 14. Convergent pedipalpal modification in Dyspnoi and Ballarrinae (Eupnoi: Neopilionidae). Known distribution of Dyspnoi after Schonhofer et al. (2013), Shear (1975, 1986), Shear & Gruber (1983), Zhang & Zhang (2013) and of Ballarrinae after Hunt & Cokendolpher (1991). Habitus of Mitostoma chrysomelas (above) and Ballarra longipalpis (below), showing similarities and differences of the convergent tentacle pedipalp morphotype.

Figure 12 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 12. Evolution of pedipalp morphotypes and distribution of glandular setae. Schematic illustration of pedipalps, prolateral side; only prominent bristles and spines displayed, all other setae and microsculpture neglected; black dots mark the position of glandular setae; arrowheads point to apophyses bearing glandular setae. Inset frames show sexual dimorphism of pedipalps (glandular setae are not marked here). A, Cyphophthalmi, Laniatores, and Eupnoi; B, Dyspnoi. [1] adapted from Forster (1954); [2] adapted from Hunt & Cokendolpher (1991); [3] based on microscopical images by Casey Richards, published on Morphbank; [4] adapted from Sato & Suzuki (1939); [5] adapted from Miyoshi (1942); [6] adapted from Mitov (2011). cs, clavate setae; p-cs, pseudoclavate setae; ps1–5, plumose setae types 1–5. Phylogenetic tree based on Giribet & Sharma (2015); Groh & Giribet (2014); Hedin et al. (2012); Schonhofer (2013); Shultz & Regier (2001); internal topology of the Phalangiidae follows the suggestion by Buzatto et al. (2013). Apomorphic characters marked (for details, see main text): (1) pedipalpal claw: (1a) enlargement, (1b) reduction, (1c) loss; (2) possession of spines (reinforced setae with highly elevated sockets); (3) possession of glandular setae; (4) patellar apophysis: (4a) hump-like, (4b) finger-like (elongated); (5) miniaturization of the tibia–tarsus joint; (6) tibia and tarsus significantly swollen; (7) glandular seta lacking in males; (8) glandular setae only present in juveniles. Drawings by Jonas Wolff.

Figure 11 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 11. Prey remnants on glandular setae. Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs). A, cryo-SEM image of collembolan setae adhering to clavate setae of Mitostoma chrysomelas (Nemastomatidae) after touching the pedipalp with an entomobryomorph springtail (see Wolff et al., 2014; for details of experimental procedure). B, scale-like collembolan setae (arrowheads) between plumose setae, as frequently found in conserved material of Caddo agilis (Caddidae). C, leaf hopper brochosome (arrowhead) between microtrichia of a plumose seta of a juvenile Dicranopalpus cf. pyrenaeus (Phalangiidae). D, large number of brochosomes adhering to the remnants of the secretion of a plumose seta in Thrasychirus gulosus (Neopilionidae). E, plumose setae on the patellar apophysis of Protolophus singularis (Protolophidae), highly contaminated with foreign setae (arrowheads). Scale bars: A, B = 10 µm; C = 250 nm; D = 1 µm; E = 50 µm.

Figure 9 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 9. Inner structure of glandular setae. Scanning electron micrographs of broken setae. A, broken shaft of sensillum chaeticum, Hesperonemastoma modestum (Taracidae), radial cuticular channels, inner ring walls, and dendritic sheath visible. B, broken plumose part of glandular seta, Thrasychirus gulosus (Neopilionidae), dendritic sheath visible. C, broken shaft of plumose seta, Sabacon sp. D, broken shaft of plumose seta, Hesperonemastoma modestum. E, broken plumose part, Dicranopalpus ramosus. F, G, broken plumose part, Ballarra longipalpis. H, I, broken shaft of clavate seta, Dendrolasma mirabile: I, close to the microtrichious part, channels open to the outside (arrowhead). J, broken tip of clavate seta, inner dendrite visible, Paranemastoma quadripunctatum (Nemastomatidae). K, broken plumose part, Caddo agilis, microtrichia are composed of epicuticle only and obviously filled with secretion. bd, backing depression; ch, secretion channel; de, dendrite; ds, dendrite sheath; ep, epicuticle; gm, granular material; lu, setal lumen; mt, microtrichia; rw, ringed walls; tr, backing trench (invagination). Scale bars: A–F, H–K = 0.5 µm; G = 250 nm.

Figure 7 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 7. Sexual dimorphism of glandular seta possession and mating posture in Phalangiidae. Scanning electron micrographs show the prolateral part of distal tibia, left female (basic), right male (modified). Photographs from copulations in captivity, insets show magnified detail of use of male pedipalp in female leg grasping. A–C, Rilaena triangularis. D–F, Phalangium opilio. Female plumose setae marked by circles. G–I, Dicranopalpus ramosus. Scale bars = 100 µm. Photographs by Jorg Pageler, with kind permission.

Figure 6 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 6. Ontogenetic dimorphism in Gagrellinae. Scanning electron micrographs of pedipalp patella and tibia. A, B, Metagagrella cf. minax: A, juvenile with a large patellar and a small tibial apophysis and plumose setae; B, adult female with reduced patellar apophysis and lacking tibial apophysis, glandular setae lacking, strong denticles present. C, D, Gagrella cf. disticta: C, juvenile, with plumose setae (marked with circles); D, adult female, with denticles. pa, patella; ti, tibia. Scale bars = 200 µm.

Figure 10 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 10. Use of pedipalps during feeding. All macro photographs, except (E) and (F), taken in the field; (E) and (F) taken in captivity. A, B, Rilaena triangularis (Phalangiidae), the prey is held between the pedipalps, glandular setae partly in contact and contaminated with prey setae: A, juvenile feeding on a captured springtail; B, adult feeding on a mosquito. C, juvenile Opilio canestrinii (Phalangiidae) feeding on a psocopteran insect. D, unidentified Gagrellinae feeding on fungi, which is held both with pedipalpal claws and chelicerae. E, Ischyropsalis kollari (Ischyropsalididae) feeding on snail; the pedipalps are only used as feelers. F, Trogulus martensi (Trogulidae) feeding on snail; the pedipalps are highly reduced and enclosed in tergal processus, thus not visible. G, Sabacon cavicolens feeding on captured springtail. Photos (A) by Jan van Duinen; (B), (C), (E), and (F) by Jorg Pageler; (D) by Melvyn Yeo, with kind permission; (G) by Axel Schonhofer.

Figure 5 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 5. Ontogenetic dimorphism of pedipalps. A, B, Cynortella quadrimaculata (Cosmetidae): A, juvenile exhibiting elongated cylindrical pedipalps with modified claw; B, adult female, exhibiting shortened pedipalps with flattened tibia and raptorial claw. C, D, Dicranolasma pauper (Dicranolasmatidae): C, juvenile, exhibiting spines on femur and clavate setae on patella, tibia, and tarsus; D, adult female, exhibiting a relatively shorter pedipalp, lacking spines and clavate setae. E, F, Dicranopalpus spp. (Phalangiidae), E, juvenile of Dicranopalpus cf. pyrenaeus, with spine-like elongated plumose setae on femur and tibia (black colour); F, adult female of Dicranopalpus ramosus, lacking the spine-like plumose setae. Scale bars: A, B = 1 mm; C, D = 0.2 mm; E, F = 0.5 mm.

Figure 4 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 4. Negative allometry of pedipalpal length. Plot of the relative pedipalp length in relation to the body length in Palpatores for species lacking glandular setae ('none' in the image), with plumose setae, and with clavate setae. Thin lines between symbols mark different stages of the same species.

Figure 3 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 3. Joint and muscle modifications in the eupnoid clamp morphotype. A, B, 3D reconstruction from microcomputed tomography images, with different segments differentially coloured. Joints in arachnid appendages are usually only operated by flexor muscles and extension is achieved by elastic transarticular sclerites or internal haemolymph pressure. The pivot of the patella–tibia joint is tilted, such that it articulates laterally. This joint is controlled by two pairs of opposing muscles. C, patellar joints in Metagagrella cf. formosa (Sclerosomatidae). cl-de, claw depressor muscle; cl-le, claw levator muscle; co, condyle; fe, femur; fe-ap, femoral apophysis; pa, patella; pa-ap, patellar apophysis; pa-fm, patella flexor muscle; ta, tarsus; ta-fm, tarsus flexor muscle; ti, tibia; ti-ab, tibia abductor muscle; ti-ad, tibia adductor muscle; tr, trochanter.

Figure 1 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 1. Morphological variation of harvestmen pedipalps. All macro photographs were taken in the field. A, Siro acaroides (Sironidae) of the basal-most suborder Cyphopthalmi, exhibiting small, nonmodified (leg-like) pedipalps. B, Holoscotolemon querilhaci (Cladonychiidae), a more basal lineage of the suborder Laniatores, exhibiting massive raptorial pedipalps. C, an unidentified species of Epedanidae, a more derived lineage of Laniatores, exhibiting extreme elongation of the femur and patella, shifting the raptorial segments distally. D, Caddo agilis (Caddidae) the most basal lineage in the suborder Eupnoi, exhibiting thick femoral spines and a dense field of glandular setae on the prolateral sides of pedipalps (secretion droplets appear like whitish dew-drops between both pedipalps). E, Platybunus sp. (Phalangiidae) with thick femoral spines and both glandular seta bearing patellar and tibial apophyses. F, male Phalangium opilio (Phalangiidae), exhibiting pedipalps with highly increased length, and all spines, apophyses, and glandular setae reduced. G, Juvenile Gagrellinae harvestman (Sclerosomatidae) with well-developed patellar and tibial apophyses, bearing glandular setae. H, Sabacon viscayanus (Sabaconidae), belonging to the suborder Dyspnoi, showing a highly modified pedipalp with dense coverage of glandular setae and hyperflexible patellar–tibia and tibia–tarsus joints. I, juvenile Mitostoma chrysomelas (Nemastomatidae), exhibiting the typical dyspnoid 'tentacle' pedipalp, densely covered in glandular setae. Photos (C) and (G) by Melvyn Yeo and (I) by Jorg Pageler, with kind permission, all others by Axel Schonhofer.

Figure 2 in The evolution of pedipalps and glandular hairs as predatory devices in harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones)

Figure 2. Scanning electron micrographs showing characters of harvestmen pedipalps. Cyphophthalmi: A, Meghalaya sp. (Stylocellidae). Laniatores: B, Galibrotus cf. riedeli (Biantidae). Eupnoi: C, Gagrella cf. disticta (Sclerosomatidae). D, Megabunus rhinoceros (Phalangiidae); E, Dicranopalpus cf. pyrenaeus (Phalangiidae), juvenile; F, Ballarra longipalpis (Neopilionidae). Dyspnoi: G, Acropsopilio neozealandiae (Acropsopilionidae); H, Dendrolasma mirabile (Nemastomatidae); I, Mediostoma stussineri (Nemastomatidae). Condition of tarsal tip and pretarsus (claw): J, Meghalaya sp., claw reduced, knob-like tip; K, Dibunus similis (Dibunidae), enlarged raptorial claw (here flexed condition); L, Cynortellana quadrimaculata (Cosmetidae), juvenile, modified pretarsus, inset shows one of numerous pores at the bulbous region; M, Phalangium opilio (Phalangiidae), smooth claw; N, Amilenus aurantiacus (Phalangiidae), pectinate claw (arrowhead); O, Ballarra longipalpis, claw totally reduced, tarsal tip rounded; P, Mediostoma stussineri, claw totally reduced, tarsal tip tapered; Q, Acropsopilio neozealandiae, claw highly but not totally reduced (arrowhead). ap, apophysis; cs, clavate seta; cx, coxa; fe, femur; pa, patella; ps, plumose seta; pt, pretarsus (claw); sc, sensilla chaetica; ta, tarsus; ti, tibia; tr, trochanter. Scale bars: A–I, K, M = 100 µm, J, N–P = 30 µm, L = 50 µm (inset 1 µm), Q = 10 µm.