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Fig. 5 in Phylogenetic relationships of the bumblebees Bombus moderatus, B. albocinctus, B. burjaeticus, B. florilegus and B. cryptarum based on mitochondrial DNA markers: a complex of closely related taxa with circumpolar distribution (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus))

Fig. 5: Tree topology calculated as Maximum-Likelihood tree using Bayesian MCMC analysis with the general time reversal model of base substitution and gamma distribution for degraded DNA of museum specimens, only parsimony informative triplets included.

Fig. 4 in Phylogenetic relationships of the bumblebees Bombus moderatus, B. albocinctus, B. burjaeticus, B. florilegus and B. cryptarum based on mitochondrial DNA markers: a complex of closely related taxa with circumpolar distribution (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus))

Fig. 4: Observed diagnostic character changes with position numbers mapped onto the Maximum- Likelihood tree. Black box = unambiguous diagnostic charactercharacter change, grey box = ambiguous diagnostic charactercharacter change, and white box = character change.

Fig. 3 in Phylogenetic relationships of the bumblebees Bombus moderatus, B. albocinctus, B. burjaeticus, B. florilegus and B. cryptarum based on mitochondrial DNA markers: a complex of closely related taxa with circumpolar distribution (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus))

Fig. 3: Alignment of all parsimonious informative triplets (with uninformative sites deleted -), and with a pointer for position number (numbered for total COI) and codon position. Diagnostic (= private) positions marked with colour green = Thymine, violet = Cytosine, red = Adenine and yellow = Guanine.

Fig. 2 in Phylogenetic relationships of the bumblebees Bombus moderatus, B. albocinctus, B. burjaeticus, B. florilegus and B. cryptarum based on mitochondrial DNA markers: a complex of closely related taxa with circumpolar distribution (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus))

Fig. 2: Tree topology calculated as Maximum-Likelihood tree using Bayesian MCMC analysis with the general time reversal model of base substitutions with gamma distribution.

Fig. 3 in Barcoding cryptic bumblebee taxa: B. lucorum, B. crytarum and B. magnus, a case study (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus)

Fig. 3: Observed diagnostic character changes with position numbers mapped onto the Maximum- Likelihood tree. Black box = unambiguous diagnostic character change, grey box = ambiguous diagnostic character change, and white box = unambiguous character change.

Fig. 1 in Barcoding cryptic bumblebee taxa: B. lucorum, B. crytarum and B. magnus, a case study (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus)

Fig. 1: Tree topology calculated as Maximum-Likelihood tree using Bayesian MCMC analysis with the general time reversal model of base substitutions, gamma distribution and 5 000 000 generations.

Fig. 4 in Barcoding cryptic bumblebee taxa: B. lucorum, B. crytarum and B. magnus, a case study (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus)

Fig. 4: Summary of Barcode engine identification requests for specimens with identification problems (LUC-01, LUC-09, LUC-10, MAG-10, CRY-01 and CRY-10) or degraded DNA (B. lucorum terrestricoloratus, B. reinigi, B. magnus turkestanicus and new sequence for B. sp. BVP-A, AY181116). For details of misidentifications and misnamings see text.

Fig. 2.1-4 in Barcoding cryptic bumblebee taxa: B. lucorum, B. crytarum and B. magnus, a case study (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus)

Fig. 2.1-4: Alignment of all parsimonious informative triplets (with uninformative sites deleted -), and with a pointer for position number (numbered for total COI) and codon position. Diagnostic (= private) positions marked with colour: green = Thymine, violet = Cytosine, red = Adenine and yellow = Guanine.

opencc-zeroNov 2022View details →

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Data from: Prior associations affect bumblebees' generalization performance in a tool-selection task

A small brain and short life allegedly limit cognitive abilities. Our view of invertebrate cognition may also be biased by the choice of experimental stimuli. Here, the stimuli (color) pairs in Match-To-Sample (MTS) tasks affected the performance of buff-tailed bumblebees (Bombus terrestris). We trained the bees to roll a tool, ball, to a goal that matched its color. Color-matching performance was slower with yellow-and-orange/red than with blue-and-yellow stimuli. When assessing the bees' concept learning in a transfer test with a novel color, the bees trained with blue-and-yellow (novel color: orange/red) were highly successful, the bees trained with blue-and-orange/red (novel color: yellow) did not differ from random, and those trained with yellow-and-orange/red (novel color: blue) failed the test. These results highlight that stimulus salience can affect the conclusions on test subjects' cognitive ability. Therefore, we encourage paying attention to stimulus salience (among other factors) when assessing invertebrate cognition.

Fig. 51 in Bumblebees of the hypnorum-complex world-wide including two new near-cryptic species (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Fig. 51. Bombus wolongensis Williams, Ren & Xie sp. nov., ♀ (queen), holotype (IOZ), habitus, lateral view (image reversed). Scale bar: 10 mm.

Figs 39–50 in Bumblebees of the hypnorum-complex world-wide including two new near-cryptic species (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Figs 39–50. Simplified diagrams for the colour patterns of the hair on the dorsum for ♀♀ (above) and ♂♂ (below) of Bombus perplexus Cresson, 1863. The dorsum is divided into regions, each of wshich shows only the predominant or most apparent colour for that region using a simplified colour palette (precise shades vary), with olive indicating a mixture of black and yellow hair, and grey indicating a mixture of black and white hair.

Fig. 2 in Bumblebees of the hypnorum-complex world-wide including two new near-cryptic species (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Fig. 2. Distribution of barcoded samples of the hypnorum-complex and B. perplexus Cresson, 1863, with the interpretations as separate candidate species from Fig. 1 shown as different coloured spots as per the colour key on the left. Relief map with hill shading, polar projection (north pole shown as a star), the international boundaries and the Arctic Circle are shown as narrow grey lines, and the northern tree line shown as a broad grey line. Image created in ArcGIS using World_Shaded_Relief basemap (© 2014 Esri).

Fig. 1 in Bumblebees of the hypnorum-complex world-wide including two new near-cryptic species (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Fig. 1. MRBAYES estimate of phylogeny as a metric tree (outgroup B. alpinus (Linnaeus, 1758) not shown) from COI barcodes from GenBank and BOLD databases for the vagans-group and hypnorum- group, with additions from the authors for the hypnorum-group of bumblebees, filtered to remove duplicate and short sequences. Each sequence is labelled with: sequence length; a taxon name from the database; a code consisting of a sequence identifier from the project database and a specimen identifier from the online database; its country and (for larger countries) state or province). The scale bar is calibrated in substitutions per nucleotide site. Results of Bayesian Poisson-tree-process (PTP) models applied for assessing support for species' gene coalescents by maximum likelihood are shown as PTP scores above the branches: scores approaching 1 and where branches change from blue to red indicates are where the most likely species' gene coalescents are detected. Asterisks mark sequences used as informal proxies for the type specimens of each of the taxon names in Table 2.

Fig. 52 in Bumblebees of the hypnorum-complex world-wide including two new near-cryptic species (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Fig. 52. Bombus hengduanensis Williams, Ren & Xie sp. nov., ♀ (queen), holotype (IOZ), habitus, lateral view (image reversed). Scale bar: 10 mm.

Figs 3–38 in Bumblebees of the hypnorum-complex world-wide including two new near-cryptic species (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Figs 3–38. Simplified diagrams for the colour patterns of the hair on the dorsum for ♀♀ (left) and ♂♂ (right) of the Bombus species from Fig. 2. The dorsum is divided into regions, each of which shows only the predominant or most apparent colour for that region using a simplified colour palette (precise shades vary), with olive indicating a mixture of black and yellow hair, and grey indicating a mixture of black and white hair.

opencc-zeroApr 2023View details →

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Electroretinogram data and thermographic data from walking and sitting bumblebees

The behavioral state of animals has profound effects on neuronal information processing. Locomotion changes the response properties of visual interneurons in the insect brain, but it is still unknown if it also alters the response properties of photoreceptors. Photoreceptor responses become faster at higher temperatures. It has therefore been suggested that thermoregulation in insects could improve temporal resolution in vision, but direct evidence for this idea has so far been missing. Here, we compared electroretinograms from the compound eyes of tethered bumblebees that were either sitting or walking on an air supported ball. We found that the visual processing speed strongly increased when the bumblebees were walking. By monitoring the eye temperature during recording, we saw that the increase in response speed was in synchrony with a rise in eye temperature. By artificially heating the head, we show that the walking-induced temperature increase of the visual system is sufficient to explain the rise in processing speed. We also show that walking accelerates the visual system to the equivalent of a 14-fold increase in light intensity. We conclude that the walking-induced rise in temperature accelerates the processing of visual information – an ideal strategy to process the increased information flow during locomotion.

Figs 10‒12 in Can biogeography help bumblebee conservation?

Figs 10‒12. Current regional preponderance of the two principal bumblebee groups. 10. Comparison of species richness for Lowland Grassland (LG: in green) and Montane Grassland (MG: in blue) bumblebees (groups as in Fig. 6). The map overlays numbers of species (Figs 7–8) in green and blue (Williams & Gaston 1998) within equal-area grid cells (Fig. 1). Both colour axes are transformed to give near-uniform frequency distributions among classes along both axes (so that the scales differ among the figures, see the colour-scale boxes to the upper right of each map). Cells with high richness on both green and blue axes appear white, whereas cells with low richness on both axes appear black, with areas of intermediate and precisely covarying richness appearing in shades of grey. By contrast, deviations from an overall positive relationship appear as increasingly saturated green or blue, showing an 'excess' richness of one axis over the other (the colour values represented on the map are indicated in the scale box with grey spots). Background map as in Fig. 1. 11. Similar comparison of LG (in green) and MG (in blue) bumblebee richness across Europe from the European guide data (Rasmont et al. 2021) on a 2° × 2° grid (not equal-area grid cells) with north at the top of the map. 12. Comparison of LG (in green) and MG (in blue) bumblebee richness across Britain from the bumblebee atlas data (Alford 1980) on a 10 × 10 km grid with north at the top of the map.

Fig. 1 in Can biogeography help bumblebee conservation?

Fig. 1. Revising bumblebee species world-wide. The total bumblebee (indigenous) species richness is highest in Asia, especially in the Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains on the southern and eastern fringes of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (Williams 1998, data updated). There are no indigenous bumblebees in sub-Saharan Africa, lowland India, or in Australia and New Zealand (and Antarctica). Species numbers peak in the region of Xining, Qinghai. Even when mapping such a globally well-sampled group as bumblebees, using a coarse-scale equal-area grid reduces species-area effects, reduces the effects of sampling heterogeneity (species-accumulation curves for these large grid cells are more nearly asymptotic than for many smaller grid cells), and smooths the effects of local habitat variation. The grid is based on intervals of 10° longitude, which are used to calculate graduated latitudinal intervals so as to provide equal-area cells (each cell has an area of approximately 611 000 km²). The colour scale has equal-frequency richness classes. Cylindrical orthomorphic equal-area projection (excluding Antarctica) with north at the top of the map. Lower left, inset: field-work sites sampled for bumblebees by the author 1971–2018 (red spots).

Figs 2‒5. Biogeographic boundaries and the Central Asian deserts. 2 in Can biogeography help bumblebee conservation?

Figs 2‒5. Biogeographic boundaries and the Central Asian deserts. 2. Principal faunal (biogeographic) regions world-wide derived directly from bumblebee data, include an Oriental Region (1, black), a Southeast Asian Region (2, light grey), a Palaearctic Region (3, dark grey), a North American Region, (4, mid grey), a Mesoamerican Region (5, light grey), an Andean Region (6, dark grey), and a Lowland South American Region (7, light grey). Principal faunal regions are identified from grid-cell bumblebee faunas (Fig. 1) using the TWINSPAN procedure that combines ordination with classification (Williams 1996, data updated). Background map as in Fig. 1. 3. One of the most marked transition zones between bumblebee faunas globally (in orange) corresponds to the arid zone of the Central Asian deserts (the centre of this arid belt is traced by the dotted black line). The map scores measure the differences in species composition among bumblebee faunas within neighbourhoods of grid cells (Fig. 1) using the β-3 spatial turnover index (Williams 1996; Williams et al. 2022b). Background map and colour scale as in Fig. 1. 4. Image of Asia based on satellite images shows wet (green) and arid (yellow) regions, with the Central Asian desert belt, its centre traced out with a dotted red line (cf. Fig. 3). Image (without line) from GoogleEarth. 5. Searching for bumblebees across the Central Asian arid belt of Inner Mongolia with Huang Jiaxing – in the northern wooded/grassland edge zones finding some old favourites from Europe, including Bombus distinguendus Morawitz, 1869, B. subterraneus (Linnaeus, 1758), B. consobrinus Dahlbom, 1832, B. muscorum (Linnaeus, 1758), B. humilis Illiger, 1806, B. pascuorum (Scopoli, 1763), B. lucorum (Linnaeus, 1761) and B. cryptarum (Fabricius, 1775), as well as some striking local species in the desert-edge zones (north and south), such as B. sibiricus (Fabricius, 1781) and the large B. amurensis Radoszkowski, 1862, but finding no bumblebees here nearer the middle (An et al. 2014; Williams et al. 2017a).

Figs 6‒8 in Can biogeography help bumblebee conservation?

Figs 6‒8. Distribution of the two principal bumblebee groups. 6. Bumblebee subgenera world-wide as revised (Williams et al. 2008) based on an estimate of phylogeny from five genes (Sanger sequencing, trees estimated using models of DNA-sequence evolution fitted with Bayesian methods: Cameron et al. 2007), updated from estimates from broad genomic data (Illumina sequencing of ca 10 000 genes, trees from maximum likelihood analysis: Sun et al. 2020) and shown as a non-metric tree. Lowland Grassland (LG) group highlighted in green and Montane Grassland (MG) group highlighted in blue. 7. Bumblebee species richness (see Fig. 1) for the Lowland Grassland (LG) group (excluding the subgenus Psithyrus Lepeletier, 1832, with its divergent parasitic habit), showing an example (inset) of Bombus pseudobaicalensis Vogt, 1911, from the grasslands of north-eastern Inner Mongolia (Williams et al. 2022b). 8. Bumblebee species richness (see Fig. 1) for the Montane Grassland (MG) group, showing an example (inset) of Bombus kashmirensis Friese, 1909, from the mountains of the eastern Tibetan plateau (Williams et al. 2022b). Background maps and colour scale of 7 and 8 as in Fig. 1.