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374 results for “Natural selection”
Following Darwin's footsteps: Evaluating the impact of an activity designed for elementary school students to link historically important evolution key concepts on their understanding of natural selection
<p>While several researchers have suggested that evolution should be explored from the initial years of schooling, little information is available on effective resources to enhance elementary school students' level of understanding of evolution by natural selection (LUENS). For the present study, we designed, implemented and evaluated an educational activity planned for fourth graders to explore concepts and conceptual fields that were historically important for the discovery of natural selection. Observation field notes and students' productions were used to analyse how the students explored the proposed activity. Additionally, an evaluation framework consisting of a test, the evaluation criteria and the scoring process was applied in two fourth-grade classes to estimate elementary school students' LUENS before and after engaging in the activity. Our results suggest that our activity allowed students to effectively link all of the key concepts in the classroom and produced a significant increase in their LUENS. These results indicate that our activity had a positive impact on students' understanding of natural selection. They also reveal that additional activities and minor fine-tuning of the present activity are required to further support students' learning about the concept of differential reproduction. We also observed a low level of teleological predictions for both pre- and post-tests. --</p>
Natural selection favours drought escape and an acquisitive resource‐use strategy in semi‐arid Mediterranean shrubs
<ol> <li>Natural selection is the major force driving adaptive evolution in natural populations, varying in strength, direction, and form through space and time, especially in highly variable environments such as Mediterranean ecosystems. Although a conservative resource-use strategy has been hypothesized to be adaptive in Mediterranean taxa, patterns of selection at the intraspecific level, i.e., the suite of traits determining individual fitness, are largely unknown.</li> <li>Using a phenotypic selection experiment in natural semiarid conditions, we measured direct and indirect selection acting through two different fitness components (survival and reproduction), to assess the adaptive value of 20 ecophysiological traits on individuals of two gypsum endemic species, <em>Centaurea</em> <em>hyssopifolia</em> and <em>Helianthemum</em> <em>squamatum</em>, dwelling in environments with contrasting abiotic conditions (south- and north-facing slopes) during two climatically contrasting years (dry and mesic). This allowed quantifying the magnitude and direction of natural selection at different spatiotemporal scales.</li> <li>Our results revealed that different abiotic conditions did not alter selection patterns, being the magnitude of selection more strongly affected by temporal environmental variation. Selection through reproduction indicated consistent selection for early phenology, low water use efficiency, high specific leaf area, low leaf dry matter content, and high leaf N across slopes and years in both species. In contrast, phenotypic trait variation was not linked to survival in either species. Furthermore, while individual reproductive output was higher or similar in environments with higher abiotic stress in both species and years, survival was similar across environmental conditions, and it was neither affected by plant size nor reproductive output.</li> <li>Contrary to our expectations, natural selection via reproductive fitness consistently favoured a drought-escape, acquisitive resource-use strategy in Mediterranean semiarid plants, rather than a conservative resource-use strategy, even under conditions of higher abiotic stress (i.e., south slopes and dry year). Such acquisitive strategy could allow rapid development by maximizing resource assimilation and reproduction before the most limiting climatic conditions of mid-late summer. Our results shed light on adaptive functional strategies of Mediterranean taxa at the intraspecific level, providing insight on future responses to environmental change, and highlight remarkable differences in selection acting through different fitness components.</li> </ol>
Stay in shape: assessing the adaptive potential of shell morphology and its sensitivity to temperature in the invasive New Zealand Mud Snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum through phenotypic plasticity and natural selection in Europe
<p>Climate change may force organisms to adapt genetically or plastically to new environmental conditions. Invasive species show a remarkable potential for rapid adaptation. The ovoviviparous New Zealand mud snail (NZMS), <em>Potamopyrgus antipodarum</em>, has successfully established across Europe with two clonally reproducing mitochondrial lineages since its arrival in the first half of the 19th century. Its remarkable variation in shell morphology was shown to be fitness relevant. We investigated the effects of temperature on shell morphology across eleven populations from Germany and the Iberian Peninsula in a common garden across three temperatures. We analysed size and shape using geometric morphometrics. For both, we compared reaction norms and estimated heritabilities. For size, the interaction of temperature and haplotype explained about 50% of the total variance. We also observed more genotype by environment interactions indicating a higher degree of population differentiation than in shape. Across the three temperatures, size followed the expectations of the temperature-size rule, with individuals growing larger in cold environments. Changes in shape may have compensated changes in size affecting space for brooding embryos. Heritability estimates were relatively high. As indicated by the very low coefficients of variation for clonal repeatability (<em>CV<sub>A</sub></em>), they can probably not be compared in absolute terms. However, they showed some sensitivity to temperature, in haplotype t more so than in z, which was only found in Portugal. The low <em>CV<sub>A</sub></em>-values indicate that genetic variation among European populations is still restricted with low potential to react to selection. A considerable fraction of the genetic variation was due to differences between the clonal lineages. The NZMS has apparently not been long enough in Europe to accumulate significant genetic variation relevant for morphological adaptation. As temperature is obviously not the sole factor influencing shell morphology, their interaction will probably not be a factor limiting population persistence under a warming climate in Europe.</p>
Shell colour diversification induced by ecological release: a shift in natural selection after a migration event
<p><span>Ecological release is often attributed to the rapid adaptive diversification of phenotypic traits. However, it is not well understood how natural selection changes its strength and direction through the process of ecological release. Herein, we demonstrated how shell colour of the Japanese land snail <i>Euhadra peliomphala simodae</i> has diversified via a shift in natural selection due to ecological release after migration from the mainland to an island<i>. </i>This snail's shell colour diversified on the island due to disruptive selection after migration from the mainland. We used trail-camera traps to identify the cause of natural selection on both the mainland and island. We then conducted a mark-recapture experiment while collecting microhabitat use data. In total, we captured and marked around 1700 snails on the mainland, some of which were preyed upon by an unknown predator. The trail-camera traps showed that the predator is the large Japanese field mouse <i>Apodemus speciosus, </i>and the predatory frequency was higher on the mainland than on the island. However, this predation did not correlate with shell colour. Microhabitat use on the island was more extensive than on the mainland, with snails on the island using both ground and arboreal microhabitats. A Bayesian estimation showed that the stabilising selection on shell colour came from factors other than predation. Our results suggest that the course of natural selection was modified due to ecological release after migration from the mainland, explaining one cause of the phenotypic diversification.</span></p>
Ecology and evolution of competitive trait variation in natural phytoplankton communities under selection
<p>Competition for limiting resources is a major force structuring ecological communities. Species minimum resource requirements (<em>R*</em>s) can predict competitive outcomes and evolve under selection in simple communities under controlled conditions. However, whether <em>R*</em>s predict competitive outcomes or demonstrate adaptive evolution in naturally complex communities is unknown. We subjected natural phytoplankton communities to three types of resource limitation (nitrogen, phosphorus, light) in outdoor mesocosms over ten weeks. We examined the community composition weekly and isolated 21 phytoplankton strains from seven species to quantify responses to selection of R* for these resources. We investigated evolutionary change in R*s in the dominant species, <em>Desmodesmus armatus</em>. <em>R*</em>s were good predictors of species changes in relative abundance, though this was largely driven by the success of <em>D. armatus </em>across several treatments. This species also demonstrated evolutionary change in <em>R*</em>s under resource limitation, supporting the potential for adaptive trait change to modify competitive outcomes in natural communities.</p>
Data from: Environmentally independent selection for hybrids between divergent freshwater stickleback lineages in semi-natural ponds
<p>Hybridization following secondary contact of genetically divergent populations can influence the range expansion of invasive species, though specific outcomes depend on the environmental dependence of hybrid fitness. Here, using two genetically and ecologically divergent threespine stickleback lineages that differ in their history of freshwater colonization, we estimate fitness variation of parental lineages and hybrids in semi-natural freshwater ponds with contrasting histories of nutrient loading. In our experiment, we found that fish from the older freshwater lineage (Lake Geneva) and hybrids outperformed fish from the younger freshwater lineage (Lake Constance) in terms of both growth and survival, regardless of the environmental context of our ponds. Across all ponds, hybrids exhibited the highest survival. Although wild- caught adult populations differed in their functional and defence morphology, it is unclear which of these traits underlie the fitness differences observed among juveniles in our experiment. Overall, our work suggests that when hybrid fitness is insensitive to environmental conditions, as observed here, introgression may promote population-expansion into unoccupied habitats and accelerate invasion success.</p>
The fundamental principles of natural selection, survival and adaptation
<p> </p> <p> </p> <p>Natural selection was first proposed by Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace. Natural selection is a process that, during successive generations, leads to the creation of hereditary traits that increase the probability of survival and reproduction of living organisms in a population. In other words, natural selection selects alleles that have characteristics that help reproduction and survival. Alleles that increase the probability of survival and reproduction are passed on to the next generation. However, I want to argue that the heritable traits that increase the likelihood of survival, adaptation, and reproduction are created by natural selection based on certain fundamental principles. In other words, for living organisms to succeed in survival and adaptation, natural selection selects the hereditary characteristics of alleles based on certain fundamental principles. Fundamental principles: 1-energy and nutrient supply; 2-security supply; 3-adapting to environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity, etc.; 4-reproduction. These are the fundamental principles of natural selection that, if fulfilled, increase the probability of adaptation, survival and reproduction. Previously, these fundamental principles were briefly stated by Mr. Darwin and other biologists. However, the importance, value, and very important role of these fundamental principles in the process of natural selection and evolution have received very little attention. If we explain survival, adaptation, and natural selection without these fundamental principles, the concepts of survival, adaptation, and natural selection will not be correct and these basic and important concepts of biology will be incompletely and wrongly understood.</p> <p> </p>
Data from: Natural selection drives emergent genetic homogeneity in a century-scale experiment with barley
<p>Direct observation is central to our understanding of the process of adaptation, but evolution is rarely documented in a large, multicellular organism for more than a few generations. Here, we observe genetic and phenotypic evolution across a century-scale competition experiment, barley composite cross II (CCII). CCII was founded in 1929 with tens of thousands of unique genotypes and has been adapted to local conditions in Davis, CA, USA for 58 generations. We find that natural selection has massively reduced genetic diversity leading to a single clonal lineage constituting most of the population by generation F50. Selection favored alleles originating from similar climates to that of Davis, and targeted genes regulating reproductive development, including some of the most well-characterized barley diversification loci, Vrs1, HvCEN, and Ppd-H1. We chronicle the dynamic evolution of reproductive timing in the population and uncover how parallel molecular pathways are targeted by stabilizing selection to optimize this trait. Our findings point to selection as the predominant force shaping genomic variation in one of the world's oldest ongoing biological experiments.</p>
NGS data produced in 'Rapid selection and identification of functional CD8+ T-cell epitopes from large peptide-coding libraries'; Nature Communications (2019)
<p>Sharma, G et al. Rapid selection and identification of functional CD8+ T-cell epitopes from large peptide-coding libraries. <em>Nature Communications</em>. Accepted (August 2019)</p> <p><strong>Abstract:</strong></p> <p>Cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells recognize and eliminate infected or malignant cells that present, at their cell surfaces, short peptide epitopes derived from intracellularly processed antigens. However, broadly searching for specific major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-bound peptide epitopes that are naturally processed and capable of eliciting a functional T-cell response has been challenging. Here, we report a method for deep and unbiased T-cell epitope profiling, which is done by using <em>in vitro</em> co-culture of CD8+ T-cells and target cells transduced with high-complexity epitope-encoding minigene libraries. Target cells that are subject to cytotoxic attack from T-cells in co-culture are isolated, before they are lost to apoptosis, by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and characterized by sequencing the minigenes encoded within. In the present study, we validate this highly parallelized method using known murine T-cell receptor/peptide-MHC pairs and diverse minigene-encoded epitope libraries to identify naturally processed and MHC-presented peptide epitopes unambiguously and with high sensitivity.</p>
Data for publication "Selected Simple Natural Antimicrobial Terpenoids as Additives to Control Biodegradation of Polyhydroxy Butyrate"
<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p> <div>In this experimental research, different types of essential oils (EOs) were blended with polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) to study the influence of these additives on PHB degradation. The blends were developed by incorporating three terpenoids at two concentrations (1 and 3%). The mineralization rate obtained from CO<sub>2</sub> released from each sample was the factor that defined biodegradation. Furthermore, scanning electron microscope (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) were used in this research. The biodegradation percentages of PHB blended with 3% of eucalyptol, limonene, and thymol after 226 days were reached 66.4%, 73.3%, and 76.9%, respectively, while the rate for pure PHB was 100% after 198 days, and SEM images proved these results. Mechanical analysis of the samples showed that eucalyptol had the highest resistance level, even before the burial test. The other additives showed excellent mechanical properties although they had less mechanical strength than pure PHB after extrusion. The samples’ mechanical properties improved due to their crystallinity and decreased glass transition temperature (Tg). DSC results showed that blending terpenoids caused a reduction in Tg, which is evident in the DMA results, and a negligible reduction in melting point (Tm).</div> <div> </div> <p>Data for publication contains: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) figures and images for samples</p> <p>Full publication can be found here: <em>https://zenodo.org/records/13785631</em></p>
The impact of social complexity on the efficacy of natural selection in termites
<p>This repository contains the dataset and markdown files necessary to reproduce the analysis conducted for the article entitled <em>Social evolution in termites reduces natural selection efficacy</em> (NEW TITLE: <em>The impact of social complexity on the efficacy of natural selection in termites</em>). It includes both raw and processed data, as well as all scripts used in the analysis, organized by the order of execution. Instructions for setting up the environment and running the scripts are provided to facilitate replication of the results.</p> <p>Here, we look at the distribution of dN/dS within Blattodea and Isoptera in order to test for a positive relationship with eusociality.</p> <p>The file <strong>analysis.html</strong> is a R-markdown file describing step by step the analysis of the submitted manuscript. To reproduce the analysis, all files have to be downloaded within the same directory.</p> <p>For any further information or questions, please contact camille.roux@univ-lille.fr or jonathan.romiguier@umontpellier.fr.</p> <p>Please cite this repository if you use these materials in your research.</p>
Natural selection shapes variation in genome-wide recombination rate in Drosophila pseudoobscura
<p>While recombination is widely recognized to be a key modulator of numerous evolutionary phenomena, we have a poor understanding of how recombination rate itself varies and evolves within a species. Here, we performed a comprehensive study of recombination rate (rate of meiotic crossing over) in two natural populations of <i>Drosophila pseudoobscura</i> from Utah and Arizona, USA. We used an amplicon sequencing approach to obtain high-quality genotypes in approximately 8000 individual backcrossed offspring (17 mapping populations with roughly 530 individuals each), for which we then quantified crossovers. Interestingly, variation in recombination rate within and between populations largely manifested as differences in genome-wide recombination rate rather than remodeling of the local recombination landscape. Comparing populations, we discovered individuals from the Utah population displayed on average 8% higher crossover rates than the Arizona population, a statistically significant difference. Using a Q<sub>ST</sub>-F<sub>ST</sub> analysis, we found that this difference in crossover rate was dramatically higher than expected under neutrality, indicating that this difference may have been driven by natural selection. Finally, using a combination of short and long read whole-genome sequencing, we found no significant association between crossover rate and structural variation at the 200-400kb scale. Our results demonstrate that (1) there is abundant variation in genome-wide crossover rate in natural populations, (2) at the 200-400kb scale, recombination rate appears to vary largely genome wide, rather than in specific intervals and (3) interpopulation differences in recombination rate may be the result of local adaptation.</p>
The evolution of sexually dimorphic traits in ecological gradients: An interplay between natural and sexual selection in hummingbirds
<p><span>Traits that exhibit differences between the sexes have been of special interest in the study of phenotypic evolution. Classic hypotheses explain sexually dimorphic traits via intrasexual competition and mate selection, yet natural selection may also act differentially on the sexes to produce dimorphism. Natural selection can act either through physiological and ecological constraints on one of the sexes or by modulating the strength of sexual/social selection. This predicts an association between the degree of dimorphism and variation in ecological environments. Here, we characterise the variation in hummingbird dimorphism across ecological gradients using rich databases of morphology, colouration, and song. We show that morphological dimorphism decreases with elevation in the understorey and increases with elevation in mixed habitats, that dichromatism increases at high altitudes in open and mixed habitats, and that song is less complex in mixed habitats. Our results are consistent with flight constraints, lower predation pressure at high elevations, and with habitat effects on song transmission. We also show that dichromatism and song complexity are positively associated, while tail dimorphism and song complexity are negatively associated. Our results demonstrate that key ecological factors shape sexually dimorphic traits and that different communication modalities do not always evolve in tandem.</span></p>
Measurements of natural radioactivity levels and associated radiation hazard indices in Moringa plant leaf samples from selected areas in southern Ethiopia.
<p>Moringa stenopetala (MS) is a multipurpose tree whose leaf is consumed by people of all ages in southern Ethiopia. In this study, natural radioactivity levels of <sup>226</sup>Ra, <sup>232</sup>Th, and <sup>40</sup>K, as well as the related dangerous radiological characteristics, were measured on different sites of moringa samples using high-purity germanium (HPGe) gamma-ray spectrometry. Average activity concentrations of <sup>226</sup>Ra, <sup>232</sup>Th, and <sup>40</sup>K in moringa leaves are found to be 0.49 ± 0.12, 3.84 ± 1.12, and 573.29 ± 26.79 Bq.kg<sup>-1</sup>, respectively. Moreover, the average values of the corresponding radiological parameters, Ra<sub>eq</sub>, H<sub>int</sub>, and annual effective dose (E<sub>ave</sub>) (sum), were also found to be 50.13 ± 3.79 Bq.kg<sup>-1</sup>, 0.136 ± 0.010, and 0.238 ± 0.089 mSvy<sup>-1</sup>, respectively. When the obtained results for all of the samples were compared to globally accepted criteria, they were discovered to be lower than the allowable world average levels. Furthermore, the lifetime cancer risk was revealed to be far lower than the allowable limit. According to the study, the risk of absorbing natural radionuclides from moringa leaf ingestion is insignificant. The findings can be utilized to create radiation safety norms and regulations for the use of moringa leaves as food and medication.</p>
Diet composition and selection of Père David's deer in Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve, China
<p><span>Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve is an ideal place to restore the wild population of Père David's deer (<em>Elaphurus davidianus</em>). </span><span>Understanding foraging ecology and diet composition is essential for assessing population development or establishing long-term effective conservation measures for endangered species.</span> <span>However, little is known about </span><span>the diet composition of </span><span>Père David's deer</span><span> and its diet selection mechanism</span><span>.</span> <span>In this study</span><span>, we used stable isotope technology to investigate the </span><span>diet</span><span> composition of Père David's deer according to various tissues (i.e., fur, muscle, liver, heart, and feces) and seasons, and evaluated the correlation between the nutrient composition of plants and </span><span>diet</span><span> composition</span><span>.</span> <span>Bayesian isotope analysis </span><span>showed that the autumn and winter diet estimated by fur and fecal samples indicated a diet dominated by C3 grasses (42.7 to 57.2%, mean), while the summer diet estimated by muscle and liver samples was dominated by C<sub>3</sub> forbs (30.9 to 41.6%, mean).</span> <span>The Pearson correlation test indicated</span><span> that the contribution of winter diet composition reflected by fur and fecal samples</span><span> was associated with correlations with crude protein (r = 0.666, P < 0.01) and soluble sugars (r = 0.695, <em>P</em> < 0.01). </span><span>The results indicated that crude protein and soluble sugars were important factors influencing the winter </span><span>diet selection</span><span> of Père David's deer.</span> <span>In the context of the current reintroduction facing many challenges, such as habitat fragmentation, wetland degradation, and human disturbance</span><span>,</span> <span>comprehensively evaluating the diet selection mechanism of Père David's deer under different resource</span> <span>specificities and temporal changes should be considered in the future</span><span>.</span></p>
Effects of density on the strength of sexual selection in the lab and in nature in an undescribed amphipod species
<p class="Body">There is a growing effort to understand how sexual selection varies over space and time under different ecological conditions and how this can maintain variation in sexual traits. An interesting ecological condition is population density, which can either increase or decrease sexual selection depending on the natural history of the species. We examined sexual and natural selection in an undescribed amphipod species (<em>Hyalella</em> sp.) using surveys of two natural populations that increase in density from spring to summer. We also conducted an experiment that directly manipulated density to assess the effects on sexual selection. In the field during spring (low density) and summer (high density), we documented sexual selection on male traits, including body size, gnathopods, and antennae. We discovered the magnitude and direction of this selection changed from spring to summer and selection patterns differed between populations. In the experiment, we found no sexual selection occurred at low density, but significant positive selection on all three male traits at medium and high densities. These results underscore the importance of isolating individual ecological factors to determine their role in sexual selection while also documenting patterns in natural populations to understand how selection varies over space and time.</p>
Beauty or function? The opposing effects of natural and sexual selection on cuticular hydrocarbons in male black field crickets
<p>Although many theoretical models of male sexual trait evolution assume that sexual selection is countered by natural selection, direct empirical tests of this assumption are relatively uncommon. Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) are known to play an important role in restricting evaporative water loss but also in sexual signalling in most terrestrial arthropods. Insects adjusting their CHC layer for optimal desiccation resistance is often thought to come at the expense of successful sexual attraction suggesting that natural and sexual selection are in opposition for this trait. In this study, we sampled the CHCs of male black field crickets (<em>Teleogryllus</em> <em>commodus</em>) using solid-phase microextraction and then either measured their evaporative water loss or mating success. We then used multivariate selection analysis to quantify the strength and form of natural and sexual selection targeting male CHCs. Both natural and sexual selection imposed significant linear and stabilizing selection on male CHCs, although for very different combinations. Natural selection largely favoured an increase in the total abundance of CHCs, especially those with a longer chain length. In contrast, mating success peaked at a lower total abundance of CHCs and declined as CHC abundance increased. However, mating success did improve with an increase in a number of specific CHC components that also increased evaporative water loss. Importantly, this resulted in the combination of male CHCs favoured by natural selection and sexual selection being strongly opposing. Our findings suggest that the balance between natural and sexual selection is likely to play an important role in the evolution of male CHCs in <em>T. commodus</em> and may help explain why CHCs are so divergent across populations and species.</p>
Data from: Functional Frogs: Using swimming performance as a model to understand natural selection and adaptations
<p>The 'Functional Frogs' 5E lesson plan is an outcome of a Research Experience for Teachers (RET) program funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The NSF project integrates research on swimming locomotion in frogs with broader goals of improving science education. The aim of this RET program was to increase scientific literacy in secondary school teachers in Oklahoma, so that they can transfer knowledge from academic research experience to the classroom and thus improve their students' understanding of science. In the this lesson, we focus primarily on comparing the peak velocity of five species of frogs, guiding students to collect data from videos of frogs swimming. The students then make evidence-based interpretations about the morphological traits that may underlie differences in swimming velocity across species. The five species differ both in morphology and ecology, with some inhabiting the aquatic environment more than others. Therefore, the lesson helps guide students through important steps of the scientific method to achieve a greater understanding of how adaptations arise in nature through examining variation in ecology, morphology, and locomotor performance.</p>
Raw data for " Unnatural evolutionary processes of SARS-CoV-2 variants and possibility of deliberate natural selection" DOI 10.5281/zenodo.8248320
<p>Compressed raw data for " Unnatural evolutionary processes of SARS-CoV-2 variants and possibility of deliberate natural selection" </p> <p>DOI 10.5281/zenodo.8248320</p>
Climate change does not equally affect temporal patterns of natural selection on reproductive timing across populations in two songbird species
<p>Climate change has led to changes in the strength of directional selection on seasonal timing. Understanding the causes and consequences of these changes is crucial to predicting the impact of climate change. But are observed patterns in one population generalisable to others, and can spatial variation in selection be explained by environmental variation among populations? We used long-term data (1955–2022) on blue and great tits co-occurring in four locations across the Netherlands to assess inter-population variation in temporal patterns of selection on laying date. To analyse selection, we combine reproduction and adult survival into a joined fitness measure. We found distinct spatial variation in temporal patterns of selection which overall acted towards earlier laying, and which was due to selection through reproduction rather than through survival. The underlying relationships between temperature, bird and caterpillar phenology were however the same across populations, and the spatial variation in selection patterns is thus caused by spatial variation in the temperatures and other habitat characteristics to which birds and caterpillars respond. This underlines that climate change is not necessarily equally affecting populations, but that we can understand this spatial variation, which enables us to predict climate change effects on selection for other populations.</p>
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