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FIGURE 10 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 10. Evolutionary and paleobiogeographic hypotheses proposed in this work illustrated with the plot of the first principal component for the lower dentition. Double horizontal lines indicate bidirectional migratory flows. Empty rectangles indicate the absence of barriers to dispersal between the last three regions considered, and solid rectangles indicate geographic isolation. See the text for a more detailed explanation.

FIGURE 9 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 9. Illustration of the two criteria used in this study as a practical guide to separate segments within a lineage. Successive values of a lineage with four populations and four fossils per population are shown. At the top, the range of variation observed for the variable considered in a related present-day biospecies. Taking the lowest value of the first population as an arbitrary reference point, the lineage will be divided into two segments for that time value at which the observed range for the biospecies is surpassed, and at the same time, the difference between the means of the two sets (C and C', respectively) becomes significant.

FIGURE 8 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 8. Relative size of the bone-breaking region of P4 versus the size of P4 for some localities of P. brevirostris. The correlation coefficient between both variables is significant (r = 0.844, p = 0.002). The ellipse corresponds to the expected region for the population at 95% confidence. Gi: Gigantopithecus Cave, Ke: Kedung Brubus, Lo: Longdan, LC: Longgu Cave, Re: Renzi Cave, Sa: Sainzelles, Um: Untermasfeld, Va: Val d'Arno, VM: Venta Micena, Yu: Yuanmou, Zo: Loc.1 of Zhoukoudian.

FIGURE 7 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 7. In A is shown a lateral view of an articulated skull and jaw of a H. hyaena specimen (EBD 33079M, Doñana Biological Station, Seville) and its corresponding schematic drawing in B, showing different functional regions of the dentition during the mandibular occlusion process. The main regions involved in cutting meat are the trigonid (Trig) of m1 in the lower dentition and the metastyle (Me) and the distal part of Paracone (P) of the upper fourth premolar (P4). The main elements involved in bone breaking are the two lower premolars (p4 and p3) that occlude with the upper third premolar (P3) and the mesial part of the paracone and the parastyle of the upper P4.

FIGURE 5 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 5. Bivariate plots of geological age on the scores for the lower dentition two first principal components. A-B, PC I for fossil individuals and paleontological localities, respectively. C-D, PC II for fossil individuals and paleontological localities, respectively. E: Elandsfontein. At the base of each figure are shown the ranges for the extant species and C. spelaea in each principal component.

FIGURE 4 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 4. Bivariate plots of the scores on the upper dentition two first principal components and their corresponding component loading plots for (A) analysis for fossil individuals and (B) analysis for paleontological localities. E: Elandsfontein. G: Gladysvale Cave. K: Kromdraai A. L: Longdan. S: Ségriès-le Réservoir.

FIGURE 2 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 2. Several examples of worn lower first molars. A, V 7296 from Baihaicum (from Qiu, 1987). B, Pliocrocuta perrieri (Se 312, Senèze, France). C, Crocuta crocuta (no id. Naturkundemuseum Berlin). D, plot of m1 trigonid length on m1 width for the species analyzed in this study. Note that there is a clear separation between Crocuta and Non Crocuta species. Additional explanations have been provided in the text.

FIGURE 1 in Stable isotope (ẟ C, ẟ O) paleoecology of the late Early Miocene mammalian fauna from Buluk, Kenya

FIGURE 1. (A) Geographic map of East Africa with the location of Buluk indicated by the red star. The location of sites with comparative data included in these analyses, Moroto, Maboko, and Fort Ternan, are indicated by black circles. (B) Simplified stratigraphic column of the Bakate Formation, adapted from McDougall and Watkins (1985) and Watkins (1989).

FIGURE 1 in Unravelling the origin of the brown hyena (Parahyena brunnea) and its evolutionary and paleoecological implications for the Pachycrocuta lineage

FIGURE 1. Stratigraphic range of the species belonging to the analyzed lineages, their paleogeographic distribution (squares with gray background), and some examples of lower mandibles in labial view. IVPP V20801: Pliocrocuta perrieri from Zanclean (Zanda Basin, China), drawn from Tseng et al. (2016). KK 82-58: Parahyaena howelli (Laetoli, Tanzania), drawn from Werdelin and Dehghani (2011). MNHN 834: Pliocrocuta perrieri post-Zanclean (holotype from Mont Perrier, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris. C/C. 806: Pachycrocuta brevirostris (Zhoukoudian, China) drawn from Pei (1934). KA 55: Pachycrocuta bellax (Kromdraai A, South Africa) drawn from Ewer (1954a). 'Hyaena' prisca (holotype from Lunel-Viel, France) drawn from Brugal et al. (2021). NHM 35.9.1.286: Parahyaena brunnea (Karroo Valley, South Africa, housed at the Natural History Museum, London).

FIGURE 7 in Paleoecology of the Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Béon 1, Montréal-du-Gers (late early Miocene, SW France): Insights from dental microwear texture analysis, mesowear, and enamel hypoplasia

FIGURE 7. Percentages of specimens above anisotropy (epLsar> 0.005) or complexity (Asfc> 2) cutpoints by species, facet, and preparation type. Triangles: living rhinoceros' species; circles: Béon 1 fossil rhinocerotids; size proportional to the number of specimens.

FIGURE 8 in Paleoecology of the Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Béon 1, Montréal-du-Gers (late early Miocene, SW France): Insights from dental microwear texture analysis, mesowear, and enamel hypoplasia

FIGURE 8. Barplots of mesowear scores on permanent teeth by method (ScoreA, ScoreB, Ruler) and by species. A- ScoreA: mesowear score based on Winkler and Kaiser (2011); B- ScoreB: mesowear score adapted from Fortelius and Solounias (2000); C- Ruler: mesowear score based on Mihlbachler et al. (2011). Only one tooth per specimen was considered.

FIGURE 1 in Paleoecology of the Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Béon 1, Montréal-du-Gers (late early Miocene, SW France): Insights from dental microwear texture analysis, mesowear, and enamel hypoplasia

FIGURE 1. Location map of Béon 1 locality, Montréal-du-Gers (MN4; mid-Orleanian, late early Miocene, south western France). The locality of Béon 1 is located (red circle) on the map of France (upper left corner) and on the zoom of south western France. Main cities (grey circles; bold) and rivers are indicated on the zoomed map. Dashed line represents the Spain-France frontier. Modified from Antoine and Duranthon (1997).

FIGURE 5 in Paleoecology of the Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Béon 1, Montréal-du-Gers (late early Miocene, SW France): Insights from dental microwear texture analysis, mesowear, and enamel hypoplasia

FIGURE 5. Comparison of the DMTA patterns by species, facet and preparation type. Upper graphs: hand-prepared specimens; lower graphs: sand-prepared specimens. Left graphs: grinding facet; right graphs: shearing facet. Boxplots of anisotropy and complexity were plotted along with the dotplots to facilitate graph interpretation.

FIGURE 6 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 6. Nesophontes skulls on dorsal view. 1-3, Nesophontes cf. longirostris; 3 is the holotype (AMNH 17626). 4-5, Nesophontes major. Small lines indicate discrete characters discussed in the text. Note the more elongated rostrum and wider gap between upper premolars in N. longirostris and the crowding in N. major.

FIGURE 4 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 4. Lateral profile of test pit D with source radiocarbon dates, oxygen stable isotopes, and NTAXA diversity by intervals. The fauna and multi-proxy analyses described in the text are from this excavation. The red lines indicate the major disconformities/erosional surfaces.

FIGURE 2 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 2. Cueva de los Nesofontes indicating geological, stratigraphic, and deposition features. 1, a gallery with main doline or sinkhole indicating areas of fauna collection. Smaller A-D letters pertain to the upper deposits/profiles described here. E-F are two test pits conducted on the lower level. G is the source location for the 14C-dated domestic dog mentioned in the text. 2, the upper area where the main test pits described are located: A is the test pit from 1985, B-C was dug between April 1995 and December 2003. The cross-section a-a' is the approximate source for the stratigraphic profiles illustrated in the following figures. Angles of inclination and heights above the main level are indicated. 3, cross-section (indicated b-b' on 1). Arrows indicate areas of sediment and raptor-derived pellet deposits and roost.

FIGURE 11 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 11. Plant, invertebrate, and reptile remains. 1-3, Anolis cf. chamaleolis (no. 606), scale bar 10 mm (Level I). 4, unidentified insect extremity ~1 mm (Level IV). 5, photid fly pupa, scale 10 mm (Level IV). 6, fungus spore (?), scale ~50μm. 7, plant seeds, scale 5 mm (All from level II and III). 8-9, seeds, scale 5 mm. 10, leaf fragment, scale ~50 μm (Level II). 11, plant spores, likely a conifer, Pinus? (Level IV), scale ~50μm.

FIGURE 9. Nesophontes left hemimandibles 1-2 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 9. Nesophontes left hemimandibles 1-2, Nesophontes cf. longirostris. 3, Nesophontes major (image inverted).

FIGURE 13 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 13. Rarefaction curve of Cueva de los Nesofontes doline test pit D (Levels I–IV) in relation to other Cuban deposits. A, Cueva GEDA, Pinar del Río; B, Cuevas Blancas, Mayabeque; D, The Desmodus deposit described in Orihuela (2010). G, from Gato Jíbaro archaeological deposit described in Orihuela and Tejedor (2012). See text for discussion.

FIGURE 1 in Late Holocene land vertebrate fauna from Cueva de los Nesofontes, Western Cuba: Stratigraphy, chronology, diversity, and paleoecology

FIGURE 1. Location of Loma del Palenque and Cueva de los Nesofontes in northwestern Cuba. 1, Landsat image of the Mayabeque-Matanzas region, indicating the area of the Loma del Palenque (Palenque Hill). 2, Satellite image of Palenque Hill. The asterisks (*) indicate a flat scarp at ~260 m where red-clay soils have formed, are the main source of the allochthonous sediment inside the cave. 3, Map of the Cuban archipelago, indicating the localities mentioned in the text: 1, Cueva El Abrón, GEDA, and Mono Fósil, Pinar del Río; 2, Cueva de Paredones, Artemisa; 3, Cueva del Túnel, Mayabeque; 4, Cuevas Blancas, Mayabeque; 5, Cueva del Gato Jíbaro, Matanzas; 6, Cueva Calero, Matanzas; 7, Breas de San Felipe, and Cuevas de Hato Nuevo, Matanzas; 8, Cueva de los Masones and Jagüey, Trinidad, Las Villas; and 9, Cueva del Indio, Daiquirí, Santiago de Cuba.