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110 results for “Sloth”
Data from: Resolving the phylogenetic position of Darwin's extinct ground sloth (Mylodon darwinii) using mitogenomic and nuclear exon data
Mylodon darwinii is the extinct giant ground sloth named after Charles Darwin, who first discovered its remains in South America. We have successfully obtained a high-quality mitochondrial genome at 99-fold coverage using an Illumina shotgun sequencing of a 12,880 year-old bone fragment from Mylodon Cave in Chile. Low level of DNA damage showed that this sample was exceptionally well preserved for an ancient sub-fossil, likely the result of the dry and cold conditions prevailing within the cave. Accordingly, taxonomic assessment of our shotgun metagenomic data showed a very high percentage of endogenous DNA with 22% of the assembled metagenomic contigs assigned to Xenarthra. Additionally, we enriched over 15 kilobases of sequence data from seven nuclear exons, using target sequence capture designed against a wide xenarthran dataset. Phylogenetic and dating analyses of the mitogenomic dataset including all extant species of xenarthrans and the assembled nuclear supermatrix unambiguously place Mylodon darwinii as the sister-group of modern two-fingered sloths from which it diverged around 22 million years ago. These congruent results from both the mitochondrial and nuclear data support the diphyly of the two modern sloths lineages, implying the convergent evolution of their unique suspensory behaviour as an adaption to arboreality. Our results offer promising perspectives for whole genome sequencing of this emblematic extinct taxon.
Data from: Retroposed elements and their flanking regions resolve the evolutionary history of xenarthran mammals (armadillos, anteaters, and sloths)
Armadillos, anteaters, and sloths (Order Xenarthra) comprise 1 of the 4 major clades of placental mammals. Isolated in South America from the other continental landmasses, xenarthrans diverged over a period of about 65 Myr, leaving more than 200 extinct genera and only 31 living species. The presence of both ancestral and highly derived anatomical features has made morphoanatomical analyses of the xenarthran evolutionary history difficult, and previous molecular analyses failed to resolve the relationships within armadillo subfamilies. We investigated the presence/absence patterns of retroposons from ∼7,400 genomic loci, identifying 35 phylogenetically informative elements and an additional 39 informative rare genomic changes (RGCs). DAS-short interspersed elements (SINEs), previously described only in the Dasypus novemcinctus genome, were found in all living armadillo genera, including the previously unsampled Chlamyphorus, but were noticeably absent in sloths. The presence/absence patterns of the phylogenetically informative retroposed elements and other RGCs were then compared with data from the DNA sequences of the more than 12-kb flanking regions of these retroposons. Together, these data provide the first fully resolved genus tree of xenarthrans. Interestingly, multiple evidence supports the grouping of Chaetophractus and Zaedyus as a sister group to Euphractus within Euphractinae, an association that was not previously demonstrated. Also, flanking sequence analyses favor a close phylogenetic relationship between Cabassous and Tolypeutes within Tolypeutinae. Finally, the phylogenetic position of the subfamily Chlamyphorinae is resolved by the noncoding sequence data set as the sister group of Tolypeutinae. The data provide a stable phylogenetic framework for further evolutionary investigations of xenarthrans and important information for defining conservation priorities to save the diversity of one of the most curious groups of mammals.
Data from: Phylogeny, macroevolutionary trends and historical biogeography of sloths: insights from a Bayesian morphological clock analysis
Sloths, like other xenarthrans, are an extremely interesting group of mammals that, after a long history of evolution and diversification in South America, became established on islands in the Caribbean and later reached North America during the Great American Biotic Interchange. In all three regions they were part of the impressive Pleistocene megafauna. Most taxa became extinct and only two small, distantly related tree-dwelling genera survived. Here we incorporate several recently described genera of sloths into an assembled morphological data supermatrix and apply Bayesian inference, using phylogenetic and morphological clock methods, to 64 sloth genera. Thus, we investigate the evolution of the group in terms of the timing of divergence of different lineages and their diversity, morphological disparity and biogeographical history. The phylogeny obtained supports the existence of the commonly recognized clades for the group. Our results provide divergence time estimates for the major clades within Folivora that could not be dated with molecular methods. Lineage diversity shows an early increase, reaching a peak in the Early Miocene followed by a major drop at the end of the Santacrucian (Early Miocene). A second peak in the Late Miocene was also followed by a major drop at the end of the Huayquerian (Late Miocene). Both events show differential impact at the family level. After that, a slight Plio-Pleistocene decline was observed before the marked drop with the extinction at the end of the Pleistocene. Phenotypic evolutionary rates were high during the early history of the clade, mainly associated with Mylodontidae, but rapidly decreased to lower values around 25 Ma, whereas Megalonychidae have lower values at the beginning followed by a steady increase, peaking during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene. Morphological disparity showed a similar trend, with an early increase, followed by a slowly increasing phase through the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene, and ending with another increase beginning at the middle of the Miocene. Biogeographic analysis showed southern South America as the most probable area of origin of the clade and the main region in which the early diversification events took place. Both Megatheriinae and Nothrotheriinae basal nodes were strongly correlated with Andean uplift events, whereas the early history of Mylodontidae is closely associated with southern South America and also shows an early occupation of the northern regions. Within Megalonychidae, our results show Choloepus as a descendant of an island dispersing ancestor and a probable re-ingression to South America by a clade that originated in Central or North America.
Data from: Neogene sloth assemblages (Mammalia, Pilosa) of the Cocinetas Basin (La Guajira, Colombia): implications for the Great American Biotic Interchange
We describe sloth assemblages from the Cocinetas Basin (La Guajira peninsula, Colombia), found in the Neogene Castilletes and Ware formations, located in northernmost South America, documenting otherwise poorly known biotas. The tentative referral of a specimen to a small megatherioid sloth, Hyperleptus?, from the early–middle Miocene Castilletes Formation, suggests affinities of this fauna with the distant Santa Cruz Formation and documents a large latitudinal distribution for this taxon. The late Pliocene Ware Formation is much more diverse, with five distinct taxa representing every family of 'ground sloths'. This diversity is also remarkable at the ecological level, with sloths spanning over two orders of magnitude of body mass and probably having different feeding strategies. Being only a few hundred kilometres away from the Isthmus of Panama, and a few hundred thousand years older than the classically recognized first main pulse of the Great American Biotic interchange (GABI 1), the Ware Formation furthermore documents an important fauna for the understanding of this major event in Neogene palaeobiogeography. The sloths for which unambiguous affinities were recovered are not closely related to the early immigrants found in North America before GABI 1.
Data from: Multi-scale effects of habitat structure and landscape context on a vertebrate with limited dispersal ability (the brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus)
As human population, food consumption, and demand for forest products continue to rise over the next century, the pressures of land use change on biodiversity are projected to intensify. In tropical regions, countryside habitats that retain abundant tree cover and structurally complex canopies may complement protected areas by providing suitable habitats and landscape connectivity for a significant portion of the native biota. Species with low dispersal capabilities are among the most at risk of extinction as a consequence of land use change. We assessed how the spatial distribution of the brown-throated sloth (Bradypus variegatus), a model species for a vertebrate with limited dispersal ability, is shaped by differences in habitat structure and landscape patterns of countryside habitats in north-central Costa Rica using a multi-scale framework. We quantified the influence of local habitat characteristics and landscape context on sloth occurrence using mixed-effects logistic regression models. We recorded 27 sloths within countryside habitats and found that both local and landscape factors significantly influenced their spatial distribution. Locally, sloths favored structurally complex habitats, with greater canopy cover and variation in tree height and basal area. At the landscape scale, sloths demonstrated a preference for habitats with high proportions of forest and nearly large tracts of forest. Although mixed-use areas and tree plantations are not substitutes for protected forests, our results suggest they provide important supplemental habitats for sloths. To promote the conservation and long-term viability of sloth populations in the tropical countryside, we recommend for land managers to retain structurally complex vegetation and large patches of native habitat.
Data from: Palaeoproteomics resolves sloth phylogeny
The living tree sloths Choloepus and Bradypus are the only remaining members of Folivora, a major xenarthran radiation that occupied a wide range of habitats in many parts of the western hemisphere during the Cenozoic, including both continents and the West Indies. Ancient DNA evidence has played only a minor role in folivoran systematics, as most sloths lived in places not conducive to genomic preservation. Here we utilize collagen sequence information, both separately and in combination with published mitochondrial DNA evidence, to assess the relationships of tree sloths and their extinct relatives. Results from phylogenetic analysis of these datasets differ substantially from morphology-based concepts: Choloepus groups with Mylodontidae, not Megalonychidae; Bradypus and Megalonyx pair together as megatherioids, while monophyletic Antillean sloths may be sister to all other folivorans. Divergence estimates are consistent with fossil evidence for mid-Cenozoic presence of sloths in the West Indies and an early Miocene radiation in South America.
Fine-scale ecological and anthropogenic variables predict the habitat use and detectability of sloth bears in the Churia habitat of east Nepal
<p>Once widespread throughout the tropical forests of the Indian Subcontinent, the sloth bears have suffered a rapid range collapse and local extirpations in the recent decades. A significant portion of their current distribution range is situated outside of the protected areas (PAs). These unprotected sloth bear populations are under tremendous human pressures, but little is known about the patterns and determinants of their occurrence in most of these regions. The situation is more prevalent in Nepal where virtually no systematic information is available for sloth bears living outside of the PAs. We undertook a sign survey-based single-season occupancy study intending to overcome this information gap for the sloth bear populations residing in the Trijuga forest of southeast Nepal. Sloth bear sign detection histories and field-based covariates data were collected between 2nd October to 3rd December 2020 at the 74 randomly chosen 4-km^2 grid cells using a varying number of 400m long transects in each grid cell. From our results, the model-averaged estimate of site use probability (ψ ± SE) was estimated to be 0.432 ± 0.039, which is a 13% increase from the naïve estimate (0.297) not accounting for imperfect detections of sloth bear signs. The presence of termite mound and the distance to the nearest water source were the most important variables affecting the habitat use probability of sloth bears. The average site-level detectability (p ± SE) of sloth bear signs was estimated to be 0.195 ± 0.003 and was significantly determined by the index of human disturbances. We recommend considering the importance of fine-scale ecological and anthropogenic factors in predicting the sloth bear-habitat relationships across their range in the Churia habitat of Nepal, and more specifically in the unprotected areas.</p>
On following pages: 2. Andean Bear (Tremarctos ornatus); 3. Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus); 4. Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus); 5. Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus); 6. American Black Bear (Ursus americanus). in Ursidae
On following pages: 2. Andean Bear (Tremarctos ornatus); 3. Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus); 4. Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus); 5. Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus); 6. American Black Bear (Ursus americanus).
Figure 1 in Harpy eagle kill sample provides insights into the mandibular ontogenetic patterns of two-toed sloths (Xenarthra: Choloepus)
Figure 1: Mandible of an adult Choloepus didactylus (MZUSP 21328), showing the limits of the mandibular and dental measurements.
Figure 4 in Harpy eagle kill sample provides insights into the mandibular ontogenetic patterns of two-toed sloths (Xenarthra: Choloepus)
Figure 4: The first two principal components of a multivariate analysis of eight mandibular measurements of Choloepus sp., with their associated variance at axis titles. Age groups are indicated by colors and the degree of symphyseal fusion by shapes.
Figure 3 in Harpy eagle kill sample provides insights into the mandibular ontogenetic patterns of two-toed sloths (Xenarthra: Choloepus)
Figure 3: Linear regression of mandibular measurements of Choloepus sp. on total mandibular length (TML). Age groups indicated by colors. See main text for measurement abbreviations.
Figure 2 in Harpy eagle kill sample provides insights into the mandibular ontogenetic patterns of two-toed sloths (Xenarthra: Choloepus)
Figure 2: Four age classes the Choloepus mandibles were grouped into. From left to right: infant, juvenile, subadult, adult. Specimens photographed, from left to right: MZUFV B0401, CE01109, CE0101, MZUSP 3651.
Figure 5 in A new nothrotheriid xenarthran from the early Pliocene of Pomata-Ayte (Bolivia): new insights into the caniniform-molariform transition in sloths
Figure 5. Photographs of the left humeri MNHN-Bol-V 012875 (A, B) and MNHN-Bol-V 003787 (C, D) referred to juvenile specimens of Aymaratherium jeani gen. nov., sp. nov. in anterior (A, C, proximal towards top and medial towards left) and posterior (B, D, anterior towards top, medial towards left) views. Scale bar = 50 mm.
Figure 1 in A new nothrotheriid xenarthran from the early Pliocene of Pomata-Ayte (Bolivia): new insights into the caniniform-molariform transition in sloths
Figure 1. Location map of the fossil-bearing locality of Pomata-Ayte. Left and centre, general location map; right, geographical location of Pomata-Ayte from which Aymaratherium jeani gen. nov., sp. nov. was recovered.
Figure 10 in A new nothrotheriid xenarthran from the early Pliocene of Pomata-Ayte (Bolivia): new insights into the caniniform-molariform transition in sloths
Figure 10. Hypothetical life reconstruction of Aymaratherium jeani gen. nov., sp. nov. by Jorge Gonzalez.
Figure 9 in A new nothrotheriid xenarthran from the early Pliocene of Pomata-Ayte (Bolivia): new insights into the caniniform-molariform transition in sloths
Figure 9. Most parsimonious trees (MPT1 and MPT2) and strict consensus tree (SCT) obtained based on phylogenetic analysis of nothrotheres using TNT (Goloboff et al., 2008a,b). Tree length = 114 steps, CI = 0.719, RI = 0.584; numbers at each node represent, from left to right, Bremer support, Bootstrap and Jackknife values. The SCT is illustrated in chronostratigraphic context, following the known stratigraphical ranges for the relevant taxa.
Figure 4 in Mosaic patterns of homoplasy accompany the parallel evolution of suspensory adaptations in the forelimb of tree sloths (Folivora: Xenarthra)
Figure 4. Geometric morphometric principal components analysis of the ulna, humerus and scapula of xenarthrans. A, the first two axes of the ulna GM analysis. No other principal components (PC) axis accounts for more than 5% of variation. B, the first two axes of the humerus GM analysis. The small amount of variation accounted for by PC2 is likely due to the small sample sizes for the taxa it differentiates, specifically armadillos, the two giant ground sloths, and to a lesser extent Hapalops. PC3 accounts for 5.6% of variation and differentiates Cyclopes from Paramylodon and Glossotherium. No other axes account for more than 5% of variation. C, the first two PCs of the scapula GM analysis. PCs 3 and 4 account for 8.6% and 6.3% of variation, respectively. PC 3 separates Cyclopes from other taxa, and PC 4 separates Cyclopes and Dasypus from Choloepus. No other PC accounts for more than 5% of variation. Sloth scapula specimens identified with a thick rimmed circle and black dot indicate the specimens shown in 4D. D, Choloepus (centre) has a relatively conserved gross scapular morphology (compare with Paramylodon on right), especially when compared with Bradypus (left), but it has mapped functional traits such as an angled scapular spine onto that conserved bauplan. Squares indicate armadillos, rounded squares indicate anteaters, and circles indicate sloths.
Figure 5 in Mosaic patterns of homoplasy accompany the parallel evolution of suspensory adaptations in the forelimb of tree sloths (Folivora: Xenarthra)
Figure 5. Geometric morphometric phylomorphospace of the ulna, humerus and scapula. A, phylomorphospace of the ulna shows that tree sloths inhabit the same region of morphospace, suggesting extensive parallel evolution relative to their last common ancestor, while giant ground sloths and armadillos diverged in the opposite direction and anteaters appear to have diverged little from the last
Figure 1 in Mosaic patterns of homoplasy accompany the parallel evolution of suspensory adaptations in the forelimb of tree sloths (Folivora: Xenarthra)
Figure 1. Phylogeny used in this study showing the relationships among living xenarthrans and extinct sloths based on recent molecular studies (see methods for details on how the tree was constructed). Extant tree sloths are labelled in purple. Hapalops and Acratocnus have been argued to show adaptations for arboreality, although these adaptations might also reflect digging habits. Other sloths are almost certainly terrestrial based on size. None of these forms show adaptation to suspensory behaviours and thus it is likely that this morphobehavioural suite evolved independently in living sloths. A cross symbol (†) indicates an extinct taxon.
Figure 8 in Reassessing the phylogeny and divergence times of sloths (Mammalia: Pilosa: Folivora), exploring alternative morphological partitioning and dating models
Figure 8. Divergence ages (median and 95% HPD) for all dating models, shown for the main groups of Folivora of the present classification. Time scale in million years ago.
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