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152 results for “forelimb”

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dryad28/100

Data from: Constraints on mammalian forelimb development: insights from developmental disparity

Tetrapod limb development has been studied extensively for decades, yet the strength and role of developmental constraints in this process remains unresolved. Mammals exhibit a particularly wide array of limb morphologies associated with various locomotion modes and behaviors, providing a useful system for identifying periods of developmental constraint and conserved developmental mechanisms or morphologies. In this study, landmark-based geometric morphometrics are used to investigate levels and patterns of morphological diversity (disparity) among the developing forelimbs of four mammals with diverse limb morphologies: mice, opossums, horses, and pigs. Results indicate that disparity among the forelimbs of these species slightly decreases or stays the same from the appearance of the limb ridge to the bud stage, and increases dramatically from the paddle through tissue regression stages. Heterochrony exhibited by the precocial opossum limb was not found to drive these patterns of morphological disparity, suggesting that the low disparity of the middle stages of limb development (e.g., paddle stage) is driven by processes operating within the limb and is likely not a result of embryo-wide constraint.

opencc-zeroDec 2012View details →

dryad28/100

Data from: Why do frog and toad forelimbs suddenly (but asynchronously) appear every time metamorphosis is near?

1. The internal development and the emergence of the forelimbs at metamorphosis is a defining feature of anuran amphibians (frogs and toads). However, although forelimb emergence is considered sudden, it is rarely synchronous. Any asynchrony may or may not exacerbate the increased drag that is predicted to occur with the emergence of the forelimbs at metamorphic climax. 2. Despite the impact forelimb emergence is hypothesized to have on individual survival and life-history evolution, the degree of asynchrony between forelimb emergence, and any consequences of such asymmetry, has not been investigated. The asynchrony in forelimb emergence also provides an opportunity to test the currently held evolutionary basis for the internal development and sudden emergence of the forelimbs in anurans. 3. Using a diverse range of anuran taxonomic groups, we measured the time between, and pattern of, the emergence of the forelimbs across a range of species. To examine the evolutionary impacts of forelimb emergence, we assessed locomotory performance when individuals had zero, one or two forelimbs emerged. 4. The duration of time between the emergence of the two forelimbs was longer and more variable than predicted. Furthermore, no species suffered impaired burst speeds nor was their angle of escape affected as the forelimbs emerged asynchronously. In fact, burst swimming speed was faster after the emergence of one and two forelimbs than prior to their emergence. 5. Fundamentally, our results call into question the proposition, long accepted, that internal forelimb development is associated with locomotion and reducing drag during metamorphosis. This does not appear to be the case, and we suggest that anatomical or developmental constraints or advantages may be responsible.

opencc-zeroDec 2013View details →

dryad28/100

Data from: Theropod forelimb design and evolution

We examined the relationship between forelimb design and function across the 230-million-year history of theropod evolution. Forelimb disparity was assessed by plotting the relative contributions of the three main limb elements on a ternary diagram. Theropods were divided into five functional groups: predatory, reduced, flying, wing-propelled diving, and flighdess. Forelimbs which maintained their primitive function, predation, are similarly proportioned, but non-avian theropods with highly reduced forelimbs have relatively longer humeri. Despite the dramatically different forces imparted by the evolution of flight, forelimb proportions of basal birds are only slighdy different from those of their non-avian relatives. An increase in disparity accompanied the subsequent radiation of birds. Each transition to flightlessness has been accompanied by an increase in relative humeral length, which results from relatively short distal limb elements. We introduce theoretical predictions based on five biomechanical and developmental factors that may have influenced the evolution of theropod limb proportions.

opencc-zeroDec 2011View details →

dryad28/100

Embryonic muscle splitting patterns reveal homologies of amniote forelimb muscles

<p class="MsoCommentText">Limb muscles are remarkably complex and evolutionarily labile; although their anatomy is of great interest for studies of the evolution of form and function, their homologies among major amniote clades have remained obscure. Studies of adult musculature are inconclusive owing to the highly derived morphology of modern amniote limbs, but correspondences become increasingly evident earlier in ontogeny. Amniote forelimb muscles derive from early embryonic muscle masses of somitic origin, which grow and cleave into recognizable divisions that split into the individualized muscles. We followed the embryonic development of forelimb musculature in representatives of six major amniote clades and found, contrary to current consensus, that these early splitting patterns are highly conserved across Amniota. Muscle mass cleavage patterns and topology are highly conserved in reptiles including birds, irrespective of their skeletal modifications: the avian flight apparatus results from slight early topological modifications that are exaggerated during ontogeny. Therian mammals, while conservative in their cleavage patterns, depart drastically from the ancestral amniote musculoskeletal organization in terms of topology. These topological changes occur through extension, translocation, and displacement of muscle groups later in development. Overall, the simplicity underlying the apparent complexity of forelimb muscle development allows us to resolve conflicting hypotheses about homology and to trace the history of each individual forelimb muscle throughout the amniote radiations. </p>

opencc-zeroJan 2022View details →

zenodo28/100

Table 10.2 in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

<p>Table 10.2. <i>Power Analysis</i> Summary Abbreviations.—RF, <i>resistive</i> force; MWR, <i>maximum</i> working rang-; NWR, <i>normal</i> working range.</p><table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>RF (kg)</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Range</th><td>Radius</td><td>Ulna</td><td>Combined</td></tr><tr><th>MWR</th><td>18.36</td><td>82.13</td><td>100.49</td></tr><tr><th>NWR</th><td>6.12</td><td><i>27.37</i></td><td>33.49</td></tr></tbody></table>

opennotspecifiedDec 2008View details →

zenodo28/100

Table 10.1 in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

<p>Table 10.1. <i>Power</i> AnalysisMeasurements Abbreviations.—MFA, motive force arm; RFA, restive force arm.</p><table><tbody><tr><th>Measurement</th><th>Radius</th><th>Ulna</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>MFA</th><td>15.2 mm (0.0152 m)</td><td>45.8 mm (0.0458 m)</td></tr><tr><th>RFA</th><td>166.2 mm (0.166 m)</td><td>186.6 mm (0.187 m)</td></tr><tr><th>MANUS</th><td>177.6 mm (0.178 m)</td><td>177.6 mm (0.178 m)</td></tr><tr><th>RFA including manus</th><td>343.8 mm (0.344 m)</td><td>364.2 mm (0.364 m)</td></tr></tbody></table>

opennotspecifiedDec 2008View details →

dryad28/100