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FIGURE 5 in Patterns of diet and body mass of large ungulates from the Pleistocene of Western Europe, and their relation to vegetation

FIGURE 5. Linear regressions of body mass (kg) of deer (Cervidae) from localities with pollen records, and minimum, maximum and mean NAP % in the pollen records of the localities. Each point represents an individual specimen. Numbers of specimens per locality are given in brackets after the locality names.

FIGURE 2 in Patterns of diet and body mass of large ungulates from the Pleistocene of Western Europe, and their relation to vegetation

FIGURE 2. Linear regressions of mean mesowear values of the ungulates in the local palaeocommunities and NAP % in the pollen records of the localities with (1.1.) minimum NAP %, (1.2.) maximum NAP % and (1.3.) mean NAP %.

FIGURE 1 in Patterns of diet and body mass of large ungulates from the Pleistocene of Western Europe, and their relation to vegetation

FIGURE 1. The localities included in this study from England and Ireland (1.1) and from Germany (1.2). The maps (1.1) and (1.2) are not to the same scale.

FIGURE 4 in Patterns of diet and body mass of large ungulates from the Pleistocene of Western Europe, and their relation to vegetation

FIGURE 4. Linear regressions of mean mesowear values of Bovidae, Equus ferus and Rhinocerotidae from localities with pollen records, and minimum, maximum and mean NAP % in the pollen records of the localities. Numbers of specimens per locality are given in brackets after the locality names. Bison from Mauer is B. schoetensacki; from other localities, B. priscus.

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Fig. 14. Relief high, rounded cusps. A in Functional Characterization of Ungulate Molars Using the Abrasion-Attrition Wear Gradient: A New Method for Reconstructing Paleodiets

Fig. 14. Relief high, rounded cusps. A: Kobus ellipsiprymnus AMNH 53484, left M1-M2; B: 53476, left M2; C: 53479, right M2; D: 53496, right M2; E: 53455, right M2; F: 53496, right M3; G: 53479, right M1; H: 53496, right M2; I: 53496, left M1; J: 53496, right M2; K: 53497, right M2.

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Fig. 19. Relief low, blunt cusps. A in Functional Characterization of Ungulate Molars Using the Abrasion-Attrition Wear Gradient: A New Method for Reconstructing Paleodiets

Fig. 19. Relief low, blunt cusps. A: Equus grevyi AMNH 277427, right M1-M3; B: Equus burchelli AMNH 83601, left M1; C: 27749, right M1-M3; D: 165064, left M1; E: 82313, left M1- M3; F: 182315, right M1; G: 82316, left M2-M3; H: 82314, left M2-M3.

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Fig. 18. Relief low, blunt cusps. A in Functional Characterization of Ungulate Molars Using the Abrasion-Attrition Wear Gradient: A New Method for Reconstructing Paleodiets

Fig. 18. Relief low, blunt cusps. A: Ceratotherium simum TE 5919, left M2; B: 5926, left M2; C: 5923, right M1; D: Equus burchelli AMNH 82036, right M2-M3; E: 82037, left M1; F: 119669, left M3; G: 54247, right M3; H: 119669, left M1; I: 165065, right M1-M2; J: 16062, left M1.

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Data from: Recovery of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) seedlings from ungulate browsing mirrors soil nitrogen availability

Abies alba (Mill.) has a high potential for mitigating climate change in European mountain forests, yet, its natural regeneration is severely limited by ungulate browsing. Here, we simulated browsing in a common garden experiment to study growth and physiological traits, measured from bulk needles, using a randomized block design with two levels of browsing severity and seedlings originating from 19 populations across Switzerland. Genetic factors explained most variation in growth (on average, 51.5%) and physiological traits (10.2%) under control conditions, while heavy browsing considerably reduced the genetic effects on growth (to 30%), but doubled those on physiological traits related to C storage. While browsing reduced seedling height, it also lowered seedling water use efficiency (decreased δ13C) and increased their δ15N. Different populations reacted differently to browsing stress, and for seedling height, starch concentration and δ15N population differences appeared to be the result of natural selection. First, we found that populations originating from the warmest regions recovered the fastest from browsing stress, and they did so by mobilizing starch from their needles, which suggests a genetic underpinning for a growth-storage trade-off across populations. Second, we found that seedlings originating from mountain populations growing on steep slopes had a higher δ15N in the common garden than those originating from flat areas, indicating that they have been selected to grow on N poor, potentially drained, soils. This finding was corroborated by the fact that N concentration in adult needles was lower on steep slopes than on flat ground, strongly indicating that steep slopes are the most N poor environments. These results suggest that populations adapted to these N poor environments have a genetically based high N use efficiency, which could be necessary for their recover from ungulate browsing.

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Data for the manuscript entitled "Factors driving large-scale ungulate carrion production in the Anthropocene"

Data for the article entitled "Factors driving large-scale ungulate carrion production in the Anthropocene". The data includes 5 main datasets, each of those corresponding to 5 main carrion production sources in terrestrial ecosystems in peninsular Spain, namely; 1) Livestock, 2) Big Game Hunting, 3) Roadkills, 4) Predation and 5) Natural mortality.  In case of any doubt/s or enquiries regarding this data, please, send an email to the corresponding author; Jon Morant Etxebarria (email: jmorant@aranzadi.eus).

FIG. 37. Tapirus indicus AMNH M-77875 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 37. Tapirus indicus AMNH M-77875, juvenile specimen. Left caudal cranium in oblique A, ventral and B, dorsal views, on facing pages with accompanying stereopairs. In B, endocranial sulcus (1) rostral to carotid incisure resembles that of Equus, which houses cavernous sinus and S-shaped loop of cerebral carotid before latter pierces dura mater (Bradley, 1923, p. 145; see also fig. 5); a second vascular sulcus (2) is situated where

FIG. 40 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 40. Transverse segments comparing vascular routes in mastoid region in Equus caballus AMNH M-204155 (A–E) and Tetramerorhinus lucarius AMNH VP-9245 (F–I) on this and facing page, each series in caudorostral order. Equus series: In A–C, sulcus for arteria diploetica magna/caudal meningeal artery (single asterisk) crosses lateral face of petrosal mastoid in a deep sulcus covered by overlying squamosal (thus forming posttemporal foramen, so-called mastoid foramen of equine anatomies). Artery's trackway is located below, but converges with, sulcus for temporal sinus in separate compartment. In D, at transverse level of external acoustic meatus, sulcus for artery enters short canal (canal Y) that penetrates dorsal surface of petro-

FIG. 35. Rhinoceros unicornis AMNH M-274636, perinatal specimen. A in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 35. Rhinoceros unicornis AMNH M-274636, perinatal specimen. A, general view of caudal cranium, ventral aspect; B, right auditory region, oblique ventrolateral view (stereopair); C, right auditory region, oblique dorsolateral view (skull cap removed, cut edge indicated by hachure); D, aspect as in C, but viewed from slightly different vantage point in order to view entotympanic sulci (stereopair). In ventral views (A, B), note deep grooves on medial and lateral sides of ventral process of entotympanic for accommodation of internal carotid artery (1) and mandibular nerve (2), as well as incisures (3) on alisphenoid's ventral margin (facing basicapsular fenestra). Route of internal carotid is best described as extratympanic, because it grooves rather than tunnels through entotympanic and does not actually touch promontorium. In dorsal views C and D, plane of slice passes through sulci for posttemporal and temporal vasculature, obscuring their relationship. Note entotympanic's dorsal process (4) projecting between squamosal and petrosal, to form a small part of

FIG. 29 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 29. Toxodon sp., selected basicranial features. A, MCL 5192 (adult), caudal cranium in ventral aspect, with undivided rostral (piriform) portion of basicapsular fenestra; B, MACN Pv 16615 (juvenile), right auditory region in ventral aspect, with divided fenestra (C, closeup of area in box in B). Key: 1, vascular sulcus crossing tympanic tympanic floor externally; 2, medial portion of rostral basicapsular fenestra, transmitting internal carotid; 3, vascular sulcus crossing entoglenoid region, presumably conducting tributaries of basicranial venous plexuses; 4, auditory bulla; 5, vascular sulcus between jugular area and hypoglossal canal,?for anastomosis between ventral petrosal sinus and condylar emissary vein; 6, squamoectotympanic suture. Van Kampen (1905: 615) reasonably assumed that feature 1, seen crossing external surface of bulla in A, was a

FIG. 41. Equus asinus AMNH M-204141 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 41. Equus asinus AMNH M-204141, isolated left petrosal in oblique caudodorsal aspect, showing osteological (top) and inferred vascular (bottom) features based on known anatomy of domestic horse. Arteries (red): Sulci for occipital artery and arteria diploetica magna (= caudal meningeal artery of equine anatomies) are continuous; small vessel leaving occipital trunk is meant to suggest muscular branches to m. obliquus capitis cranialis (Ellenberger and Baum, 1908: 672), which leave no trace osteologically. As in figure 40, sulcus for arteria diploetica magna passes dorsally over tympanic roof, then diverges medially along a somewhat narrower trackway that runs through a short tube, canal Y. Trackway reemerges, crosses (asterisk) petrosal's mediodorsal face, then continues into middle cranial fossa to join or become cranioorbital artery. Veins (blue): In equines there is no equivalent of vena diploetica magna closely accompanying arteria diploetica magna. Small vein (dashed blue line) within canal Y is included for purposes of illustration only; no such vein is found in the horse, but its presence (as vena diploetica magna) would be generally expected in other taxa possessing arteria diploetica magna. Although hard to appreciate from this aspect, transverse sinus, temporal sinus, and vein of temporal meatus are individually situated at higher horizontal positions than trackway for arteria diploetica magna (cf. figs. 39A, 40). Temporal sinus enters canal that partly parallels sulcus for arteria diploetica magna, but continues rostrally to leave skull as retroarticular vein via retroarticular incisure (fig. 40).

FIG. 39. Equus caballus AMNH M-204155 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 39. Equus caballus AMNH M-204155, left caudal cranium in A, lateral and B, ventral aspects, with C, ventral stereopair of auditory region. Key: 1, incisura carotidis; 2, incisura ovalis; 3, incisura spinosa. In A, planes corresponding to approximate location of segments illustrated in figure 40A–E are indicated on lower right. In B, white asterisks, impressions for?tributaries of basicranial plexuses and retroarticular emissary vein; black asterisk, impression for?craniooccipital vein or emissarium from ventral petrosal sinus (see fig. 6). Even though this a young animal, suture line between ectotympanic and entotympanic is already obliterated (see Maier et al., 2013).

FIG. 26 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 26. Trigonostylops wortmani AMNH VP-28700. A, B, basicranium in rostroventral aspect, with interpretative diagram based on updated version of Simpson's (1933a) figure 5, drawn in similar orientation; C, left auditory region (stereopair) in oblique rostroventral aspect, to reveal matrix-filled rostral (piriform) part of basicapsular fenestra; and D, left auditory region (stereopair) in oblique caudoventral aspect, to reveal close proximity of tympanic cavity and aditus of extratympanic sinus. In A, contour lines on basicranium rostral to ectotympanic (not in original illustration) approximate extent of matrix-filled basicapsular fenestra (see C). Labeling conforms to identifications and nomenclature used in this paper. Key: 1, caudal carotid incisure in ectotympanic; 2, Simpson's "foramen lacerum medium & Eustachian canal," actually medial limit of matrix-

FIG. 31. Digital 3D in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 31. Digital 3D reconstructions of left osseous labyrinths of Trigonostylops wortmani AMNH VP-28700 and Astrapotherium magnum MACN A 3208 in lateral, ventral, and dorsal views. Both specimens are damaged (area of fenestra vestibuli in AMNH VP-28700; fenestra cochleae in MACN A 3208: arrow).

FIG. 25 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 25. Trigonostylops wortmani AMNH VP-28700, right orbital and infratemporal regions. A, oblique right lateral aspect (stereopair), B, interpretative diagram (on page opposite), based on Simpson's (1933a) original figure 2 but relabeled to conform with identifications and nomenclature used in this paper. Zygomatic arch shown in section (hachure). Conspicuous groove running dorsorostrally from cranioorbital foramen is probably vascular; in some mammals (e.g., rodents, many eulipotyphlans) a similarly positioned trackway carries retained orbital branch of stapedial ramus superior (Bugge, 1974). Multiple infraorbital foramina are more obvious in figure 24. Single asterisk, small aperture, possibly but not certainly a foramen. Double asterisks, groove for lesser palatine neurovascular bundle, passing around caudal end of maxillary tuberosity.

FIG. 27. Astrapotherium magnum, selected basicranial features. A in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 27. Astrapotherium magnum, selected basicranial features. A, AMNH VP-9278, right basicranium in ventral aspect. Prominent impression labelled "?vasc sulc" may have conducted extracranial venous structures similar to basicranial plexuses seen in extant Equus (fig. 6; see also similarly positioned sulcus in Tapirus, fig. 38: feature 5). Basicapsular fenestra is hidden in this perspective, except for extreme rostral and caudal ends. B, Digitally reconstructed left petrosal of A . magnum MACN A 3208, reversed and rotated to permit com-

FIG. 24 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 24. Trigonostylops wortmani AMNH VP-28700, right facial region, showing multiple infraorbital foramina (stereopair). See also figure 25. Lacrimal foramen (arrow) and tubercle also visible on orbital rim.