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236 results for “venom”
Data from: Island biogeography and competition drive rapid venom complexity evolution across rattlesnakes
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Data from: Phylogenomic reclassification of the world’s most venomous spiders (Mygalomorphae, Atracinae), with implications for venom evolution
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Convergent_nAChR venom resistance Mammals 2022
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Phylogenetically diverse diets favor more complex venoms in North American pitvipers
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Data from: Local prey community composition and genetic distance predict venom divergence among populations of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus)
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Data from: Comparative venom analysis between melanistic and normally-colored phenotypes of the common adder (Vipera berus)
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Comparative transcriptomics of the venoms of continental and insular radiations of West African cones
<p>The transcriptomes of the venom glands of 13 closely related species of vermivorous cones endemic to West Africa from genera <i>Africonus</i> and <i>Varioconus</i> were sequenced and venom repertoires compared within a phylogenetic framework. The total number of conotoxin precursors per species varied between 108 and 221. Individuals of the same species shared about one fourth of the total conotoxin precursors. The number of common sequences was drastically reduced in the pairwise comparisons between closely related species and the phylogenetical signal was totally eroded at the genus level (no sequence was identified as shared-derived), due to the intrinsic high variability of these secreted peptides. A common set of four conotoxin precursor superfamilies (T, O1, O2, and M) was expanded in all studied cone species, and thus, they are considered the basic venom toolkit for hunting and defense in the West African vermivorous cone snails. Maximum likelihood ancestral character reconstructions inferred shared conotoxin precursors preferentially at internal nodes close to the tips of the phylogeny (between individuals and between closely related species) as well as in the common ancestor of <i>Varioconus</i>. Besides the common toolkit, the two genera showed significantly distinct catalogues of conotoxin precursors in terms of type of superfamilies present and the abundance of members per superfamily, but had similar relative expression levels indicating functional convergence. Differential expression comparisons between vermivorous and piscivorous cones highlighted the importance of the A and S superfamilies for fish hunting and defense.</p>
Wasp Spider Venomics
<p>Supplementary Files for the wasp spider Venomics project:</p> <p>(An image of the species (paper5.jpg for visualisation) has been added to the supplementary files)</p> <p>Figure S1: 2D SDS PAGE Gel used for interpretation and MALDI MS (Zoom in for Spot assignments)</p> <p>Table S1: Docker Images combined for bioinformatic analysis</p> <p>Table S2: Mascot output for MALDI MS</p> <p>Table S3: Mascot output for nanoLC ESI MS</p> <p>Table S4: Annotated Proteome Hits incl Sequences</p> <p>Table S5: Annotated sequences from Araneus ventricosus </p>
Data from: The molecular basis of venom resistance in a rattlesnake-squirrel predator-prey system
Understanding how interspecific interactions mould the molecular basis of adaptations in coevolving species is a long-sought goal of evolutionary biology. Venom in predators and venom resistance proteins in prey are coevolving molecular phenotypes, and while venoms are highly complex mixtures it is unclear if prey respond with equally complex resistance traits. Here we use a novel molecular methodology based on protein affinity columns to capture and identify candidate blood serum resistance proteins ('Venom Interactive Proteins' – VIPs) in California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi) that interact with venom proteins from their main predator, Northern Pacific Rattlesnakes (Crotalus o. oreganus). This assay showed that serum-based resistance is both population- and species-specific, with serum proteins from ground squirrels showing higher binding affinities for venom proteins of local snakes compared to allopatric individuals. Venom protein specificity assays identified numerous and diverse candidate prey resistance VIPs but also potential targets of venom in prey tissues. Many specific VIPs bind to multiple snake venom proteins and, conversely, single venom proteins bind multiple VIPs, demonstrating that a portion of the squirrel blood serum "resistome" involves broad-based inhibition of non-self proteins and suggests that resistance involves a toxin scavenging mechanism. Analyses of rates of evolution of VIP protein homologs in related mammals show that most of these proteins evolve under purifying selection possibly due to molecular constraints that limit the evolutionary responses of prey to rapidly evolving snake venom proteins. Our method represents a general approach to identify specific proteins involved in coevolutionary interactions between species at the molecular level.
Data from: Diversification rates and phenotypic evolution in venomous snakes (Elapidae)
The relationship between rates of diversification and of body size change (a common proxy for phenotypic evolution) was investigated across Elapidae, the largest radiation of highly venomous snakes. Time-calibrated phylogenetic trees for 175 species of elapids (more than 50% of known taxa) were constructed using seven mitochondrial and nuclear genes. Analyses using these trees revealed no evidence for a link between speciation rates and changes in body size. Two clades (Hydrophis, Micrurus) show anomalously high rates of diversification within Elapidae, yet exhibit rates of body size evolution almost identical to the general elapid 'background' rate. Although correlations between speciation rates and rates of body size change exist in certain groups (e.g. ray-finned fishes, passerine birds), the two processes appear to be uncoupled in elapid snakes. There is also no detectable shift in diversification dynamics associated with the colonization of Australasia, which is surprising given that elapids appear to be the first clade of venomous snakes to reach the continent.
Data from: Widespread chemical detoxification of alkaloid venom by formicine ants
The ability to detoxify defensive compounds of competitors provides key ecological advantages that can influence community-level processes. Although common in plants and bacteria, this type of detoxification interaction is extremely rare in animals. Here, using laboratory behavioral assays and analyses of videotaped interactions in South America, we report widespread venom detoxification among ants in the subfamily Formicinae. Across both data sets, nine formicine species, representing all major clades, used a stereotyped grooming behavior to self-apply formic acid (acidopore grooming) in response to fire ant (Solenopsis invicta and S. saevissima) venom exposure. In laboratory assays, this behavior increased the survivorship of species following exposure to S. invicta venom. Species expressed the behavior when exposed to additional alkaloid venoms, including both compositionally similar piperidine venom of an additional fire ant species and the pyrrolidine/pyrroline alkaloid venom of a Monomorium species. In addition, species expressed the behavior following exposure to the uncharacterized venom of a Crematogaster species. However, species did not express acidopore grooming when confronted with protein-based ant venoms or when exposed to monoterpenoid-based venom. This pattern, combined with the specific chemistry of the reaction of formic acid with venom alkaloids, indicates that alkaloid venoms are targets of detoxification grooming. Solenopsis thief ants, and Monomorium species stand out as brood-predators of formicine ants that produce piperidine, pyrrolidine, and pyrroline venom, providing an important ecological context for the use of detoxification behavior. Detoxification behavior also represents a mechanism that can influence the order of assemblage dominance hierarchies surrounding food competition. Thus, this behavior likely influences ant-assemblages through a variety of ecological pathways.
Data from: Genetic surfing, not allopatric divergence, explains spatial sorting of mitochondrial haplotypes in venomous coralsnakes
Strong spatial sorting of genetic variation in contiguous populations is often explained by local adaptation or secondary contact following allopatric divergence. A third explanation, spatial sorting by stochastic effects of range expansion, has been considered less often though theoretical models suggest it should be widespread, if ephemeral. In a study designed to delimit species within a clade of venomous coralsnakes, we identified an unusual pattern within the Texas coral snake (Micrurus tener): strong spatial sorting of divergent mitochondrial (mtDNA) lineages over a portion of its range, but weak sorting of these lineages elsewhere. We tested three alternative hypotheses to explain this pattern—local adaptation, secondary contact following allopatric divergence, and range expansion. Collectively, near panmixia of nuclear DNA, the signal of range expansion associated sampling drift, expansion origins in the Gulf Coast of Mexico, and species distribution modeling suggest that the spatial sorting of divergent mtDNA lineages within M. tener has resulted from genetic surfing of standing mtDNA variation—not local adaptation or allopatric divergence. Our findings highlight the potential for the stochastic effects of recent range expansion to mislead estimations of population divergence made from mtDNA, which may be exacerbated in systems with low vagility, ancestral mtDNA polymorphism, and male-biased dispersal.
Data from: Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
Background: The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is widely distributed throughout many parts of Asia. This study aims to investigate the complexity of Malaysian Ophiophagus hannah (MOh) venom for a better understanding of king cobra venom variation and its envenoming pathophysiology. The venom gland transcriptome was investigated using the Illumina HiSeq™ platform, while the venom proteome was profiled by 1D-SDS-PAGE-nano-ESI-LCMS/MS. Results: Transcriptomic results reveal high redundancy of toxin transcripts (3357.36 FPKM/transcript) despite small cluster numbers, implying gene duplication and diversification within restricted protein families. Among the 23 toxin families identified, three-finger toxins (3FTxs) and snake-venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) have the most diverse isoforms. These 2 toxin families are also the most abundantly transcribed, followed in descending order by phospholipases A 2 (PLA 2 s), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), Kunitz-type inhibitors (KUNs), and L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs). Seventeen toxin families exhibited low mRNA expression, including hyaluronidase, DPP-IV and 5'-nucleotidase that were not previously reported in the venom-gland transcriptome of a Balinese O. hannah. On the other hand, the MOh proteome includes 3FTxs, the most abundantly expressed proteins in the venom (43 % toxin sbundance). Within this toxin family, there are 6 long-chain, 5 short-chain and 2 non-conventional 3FTx. Neurotoxins comprise the major 3FTxs in the MOh venom, consistent with rapid neuromuscular paralysis reported in systemic envenoming. The presence of toxic enzymes such as LAAOs, SVMPs and PLA 2 would explain tissue inflammation and necrotising destruction in local envenoming. Dissimilarities in the subtypes and sequences between the neurotoxins of MOh and Naja kaouthia (monocled cobra) are in agreement with the poor cross-neutralization activity of N. kaouthia antivenom used against MOh venom. Besides, the presence of cobra venom factor, nerve growth factors, phosphodiesterase, 5'-nucleotidase, and DPP-IV in the venom proteome suggests its probable hypotensive action in subduing prey. Conclusion: This study reports the diversity and abundance of toxins in the venom of the Malaysian king cobra (MOh). The results correlate with the pathophysiological actions of MOh venom, and dispute the use of Naja cobra antivenoms to treat MOh envenomation. The findings also provide a deeper insight into venom variations due to geography, which is crucial for the development of a useful pan-regional antivenom.
Data from: Medically important differences in snake venom composition are dictated by distinct postgenomic mechanisms
Variation in venom composition is a ubiquitous phenomenon in snakes and occurs both interspecifically and intraspecifically. Venom variation can have severe outcomes for snakebite victims by rendering the specific antibodies found in antivenoms ineffective against heterologous toxins found in different venoms. The rapid evolutionary expansion of different toxin-encoding gene families in different snake lineages is widely perceived as the main cause of venom variation. However, this view is simplistic and disregards the understudied influence that processes acting on gene transcription and translation may have on the production of the venom proteome. Here, we assess the venom composition of six related viperid snakes and compare interspecific changes in the number of toxin genes, their transcription in the venom gland, and their translation into proteins secreted in venom. Our results reveal that multiple levels of regulation are responsible for generating variation in venom composition between related snake species. We demonstrate that differential levels of toxin transcription, translation, and their posttranslational modification have a substantial impact upon the resulting venom protein mixture. Notably, these processes act to varying extents on different toxin paralogs found in different snakes and are therefore likely to be as important as ancestral gene duplication events for generating compositionally distinct venom proteomes. Our results suggest that these processes may also contribute to altering the toxicity of snake venoms, and we demonstrate how this variability can undermine the treatment of a neglected tropical disease, snakebite.
Data from: Echidna venom gland transcriptome provides insights into the evolution of monotreme venom
Monotremes (echidna and platypus) are egg-laying mammals. One of their most unique characteristic is that males have venom/crural glands that are seasonally active. Male platypuses produce venom during the breeding season, delivered via spurs, to aid in competition against other males. Echidnas are not able to erect their spurs, but a milky secretion is produced by the gland during the breeding season. The function and molecular composition of echidna venom is as yet unknown. Hence, we compared the deeply sequenced transcriptome of an in-season echidna crural gland to that of a platypus and searched for putative venom genes to provide clues into the function of echidna venom and the evolutionary history of monotreme venom. We found that the echidna venom gland transcriptome was markedly different from the platypus with no correlation between the top 50 most highly expressed genes. Four peptides found in the venom of the platypus were detected in the echidna transcriptome. However, these genes were not highly expressed in echidna, suggesting that they are the remnants of the evolutionary history of the ancestral venom gland. Gene ontology terms associated with the top 100 most highly expressed genes in echidna, showed functional terms associated with steroidal and fatty acid production, suggesting that echidna "venom" may play a role in scent communication during the breeding season. The loss of the ability to erect the spur and other unknown evolutionary forces acting in the echidna lineage resulted in the gradual decay of venom components and the evolution of a new role for the crural gland.
Data from: When one phenotype is not enough - divergent evolutionary trajectories govern venom variation in a widespread rattlesnake species
Understanding the origin and maintenance of phenotypic variation, particularly across a continuous spatial distribution, represents a key challenge in evolutionary biology. For this, animal venoms represent ideal study systems: they are complex, variable, yet easily quantifiable molecular phenotypes with a clear function. Rattlesnakes display tremendous variation in their venom composition, mostly through strongly dichotomous venom strategies, which may even coexist within single species. Here, through dense, widespread population-level sampling of the Mojave rattlesnake, Crotalus scutulatus, we show that genomic structural variation at multiple loci underlies extreme geographic variation in venom composition, which is maintained despite extensive gene flow. Unexpectedly, neither diet composition nor neutral population structure explain venom variation. Instead, venom divergence is strongly correlated with environmental conditions. Individual toxin genes correlate with distinct environmental factors, suggesting that different selective pressures can act on individual loci independently of their co-expression patterns or genomic proximity. Our results challenge common assumptions about diet composition as the key selective driver of snake venom evolution and emphasise how the interplay between genomic architecture and local-scale spatial heterogeneity in selective pressures may facilitate the retention of adaptive functional polymorphisms across a continuous space.
Data from: Human-mediated disturbance in multitrophic interactions results in outbreak levels of North America's most venomous caterpillar
Abstract Anthropogenic environmental change is predicted to disrupt multitrophic interactions, which may have drastic consequences for population-level processes. Here, we investigate how a large-scale human-mediated disturbance affects the abundance of North America's most venomous caterpillar species, Megalopyge opercularis. Specifically, we used a natural experiment where netting was deployed to cover the entire canopies of a subset of mature southern live oak trees (Quercus virginiana) to exclude urban pest birds (grackles and pigeons), throughout an 8.1-km2 area encompassing a medical center in Houston, Texas. We used this experimental exclusion to test the following hypothesis: release from avian predators increases caterpillar abundance to outbreak levels, which increases the risk to human health. Results from a multi-year survey show that caterpillar abundance increased, on average, >7300% on netted versus non-netted trees. Thus, increases in caterpillar abundance, due to anthropogenic enemy release, increase human exposure to this venomous pest, and should be considered a health threat in the area. This study emphasizes the unforeseen consequences of ecological disturbance for species interactions and highlights the importance of considering ecology in urban planning.
Fig. 13 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
Fig. 13. Ultrastructure of the reproductive apparatus of Cynipini.(A, B) Volume rendered micrographs of accessory gland of the agamic generation of Disholcaspis quercusmamma confocal images stained with phalloidin (actin), revealing smooth muscles cells, and Hoescht (blue), revealing nuclei. (C)Transmission electron micrograph of a smooth muscle cell on the accessory gland of the agamic generation of Acraspis macrocarpae. (D, E) Confocal images of an accessory gland of D. quercusmamma stained with Hoescht (DNA) and Nile Red (lipid). (F) Transmission electron micrograph of the accessory gland of A. macrocarpae. (G–I) Confocal images of: (G, H) an accessory sac and (I) an oviduct of D. quercusmamma with Hoescht and Nile Red staining. Legend: N: nucleus, f: muscle fiber, m: mitochondria, lv: lipid vesicle.
Fig. 14 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
Fig. 14. Ovariole anatomy of various Cynipids. Ovarioles of 19 species belonging to five tribes, with insets showing the egg development stage. M: mature egg, D: developing egg, Ga.: galler species, and In.: inquiline species. Square colors correspond to tribe colors introduced in Fig. 2.
Fig. 11 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
Fig. 11. Relative size of the accessory apparatus in Cynipoids.Accessory sac diameter relative to metasoma length, with the name of the species with the highest ratio.The ratios of (A) accessory sac area over metasoma area and (B) accessory gland length over metasoma length for each species dissected.The dendrogram is adapted from Blaimer et al. (2020).The band indicates the species lifestyle (galler or inquiline) and the generation for Cynipini (sexual, agamic, or unknown). The dot colors in (A) correspond to the cynipoid tribes displayed in the dendrogram in (B).
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