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1,316 results for “Trade”
FIG. 3 in When ivory came from the seas. On some traits of the trade of raw and carved sea-mammal ivories in the Middle Ages
FIG. 3. — Crozier and ring found in the tomb of bishop Olafur (1246-1280) in Garðar. Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen. Crozier height: 14 cm (Photo: Nationalmuseet Copenhagen: CC-BY-SA).
Data from: Growth and reproduction trade-offs can estimate previous reproductive history in alpine ungulates
<p>1. Life-history theory predicts energy allocation trade-offs between traits when resources are limited. If females reduce allocation to growth when they reproduce, annual growth could reveal past reproductive effort, which would be useful to assess population dynamics and harvest sustainability. The potential and accuracy of growth measures for predicting reproductive success have rarely been evaluated with individuals with known reproductive history.</p> <p>2. We used long-term monitoring of annual growth and reproduction of marked female bighorn sheep and mountain goats, two species in which primiparity normally occurs well before growth completion, to evaluate growth <i>vs.</i> reproduction trade-offs and their potential for predicting reproductive history of young females using mixed models and 10-fold block cross-validation.</p> <p>3. We documented a significant reduction in mass gain and horn growth in young reproducing females of both species. This trade-off was affected by individual differences in energy acquisition and allocation, because population density and previous allocation to growth affected the trade-off. We then parametrized models to predict individual reproductive history of young females based on the growth traits subjected to a reproductive trade-off.</p> <p>4. The accuracy of predictive models ranged from 85.2% to 91.0% across species and traits, indicating that growth is a good predictor of reproductive history. This method is especially useful for population management of species with traits that form permanent visible yearly annuli because they retain a record of annual growth that allows retrospective estimation of reproductive history over multiple years.</p> <p>5. Synthesis and applications. We show that because growth significantly decreased in years of allocation to reproduction, annual growth increments provide insights on reproductive history of young females. Population or temporal differences in reproduction of young females affect demographic rates and sustainable harvest. Growth measures of traits that form yearly annuli, such as teeth and horns, could be easily obtained at a low cost from animals harvested or found dead in multiple species. Thus, predictive models of reproductive history based on annual growth could assist conservation and management in a broad range of species.</p>
Data from: Larval UV exposure impairs adult immune function through a trade-off with larval investment in cuticular melanin
Despite the strong impact of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on invertebrates, it is unknown whether it affects immune function across metamorphosis. More generally, the mechanisms on how larval stressors bridge metamorphosis and shape adult fitness in animals with a complex life cycle remain poorly understood. We studied whether cuticular melanin content is upregulated under UV exposure in the larval stage of the damselfly Coenagrion puella and whether this is traded off across metamorphosis against a key component of the invertebrate immune response, the melanotic encapsulation response, in the adult stage. Larvae exposed to UV increased the melanin content in their exoskeleton and metamorphosed later and at a smaller mass than animals reared without UV. Across metamorphosis, this was associated with a reduced melanotic encapsulation response, thereby constituting the first proof for a UV driven impaired immune response in an invertebrate. The demonstrated costs of UV exposure in terms of age and mass at metamorphosis and reduced adult immune response likely translate into reduced adult fitness. Path analysis indicated that the immunosuppressive property of larval UV exposure was not mediated by age and mass at metamorphosis, but instead that the adult immune response was traded off against larval cuticular melanin investment. Melanin-based trade-off across metamorphosis provide a new pathway by which effects of larval stressors are carried over to the adult stage and thereby advances our understanding of the still largely enigmatic mechanisms of carryover effects of larval stressors across metamorphosis. Given the mechanistic base, this carryover effect of larval UV exposure on adult immune function is expected to be general and may constitute a widespread and important cost of UV exposure in invertebrates.
Data from: Pathogen life-history trade-offs revealed in allopatry
Trade-offs in life-history traits is a central tenet in evolutionary biology, yet their ubiquity and relevance to realized fitness in natural populations remains questioned. Trade-offs in pathogens are of particular interest because they may constrain the evolution and epidemiology of diseases. Here, we studied life-history traits determining transmission in the obligate fungal pathogen, Podosphaera plantaginis, infecting Plantago lanceolata. We find that while traits are positively associated on sympatric host genotypes, on allopatric host genotypes relationships between infectivity and subsequent transmission traits change shape, becoming even negative. The epidemiological prediction of this change in life-history relationships in allopatry is lower disease prevalence in newly established pathogen populations. An analysis of the natural pathogen metapopulation confirms that disease prevalence is lower in newly established pathogen populations and they are more prone to go extinct during winter than older pathogen populations. Hence, life-history trade-offs mediated by pathogen local adaptation may influence epidemiological dynamics at both population and metapopulation levels.
Data from: Boldness predicts an individual's position along an exploration-exploitation foraging trade-off
Individuals do not have complete information about the environment and therefore they face a trade-off between gathering information (exploration) and gathering resources (exploitation). Studies have shown individual differences in components of this trade-off but how stable these strategies are in a population and the intrinsic drivers of these differences is not well understood. Top marine predators are expected to experience a particularly strong trade-off as many species have large foraging ranges and their prey often have a patchy distribution. This environment leads these species to exhibit pronounced exploration and exploitation phases but differences between individuals are poorly resolved. Personality differences are known to be important in foraging behaviour but also in the trade-off between exploration and exploitation. Here we test whether personality predicts an individual exploration-exploitation strategy using wide ranging wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) as a model system. Using GPS tracking data from 276 wandering albatrosses, we extract foraging parameters indicative of exploration (searching) and exploitation (foraging) and show that foraging effort, time in patch and size of patch are strongly correlated, demonstrating these are indicative of an exploration-exploitation strategy. Furthermore, we show these are consistent within individuals and appear stable in the population, with no reproductive advantage. The searching and foraging behaviour of bolder birds placed them towards the exploration end of the trade-off, whereas shy birds showed greater exploitation. This result provides a mechanism through which individual foraging strategies may emerge. Age and sex affected components of the trade-off, but not the trade-off itself, suggesting these factors may drive behavioural compensation to maintain resource acquisition and this was supported by the evidence that there were no fitness consequence of any EE trait nor the trade-off itself. These results demonstrate a clear trade-off between information gathering and exploitation of prey patches, and reveals for the first time that boldness may drive these differences. This provides a mechanism through which widely reported links between personality and foraging may emerge.
Data from: Size evolution in microorganisms masks trade-offs predicted by the growth rate hypothesis
Adaptation to local resource availability depends on responses in growth rate and nutrient acquisition. The growth rate hypothesis (GRH) suggests that growing fast should impair competitive abilities for phosphorus and nitrogen due to high demand for biosynthesis. However, in microorganisms, size influences both growth and uptake rates, which may mask trade-offs and instead generate a positive relationship between these traits (size hypothesis, SH). Here, we evolved a gradient of maximum growth rate (μmax) from a single bacterium ancestor to test the relationship among μmax, competitive ability for nutrients and cell size, while controlling for evolutionary history. We found a strong positive correlation between μmax and competitive ability for phosphorus, associated with a trade-off between μmax and cell size: strains selected for high μmax were smaller and better competitors for phosphorus. Our results strongly support the SH, while the trade-offs expected under GRH were not apparent. Beyond plasticity, unicellular populations can respond rapidly to selection pressure through joint evolution of their size and maximum growth rate. Our study stresses that physiological links between these traits tightly shape the evolution of competitive strategies.
Data from: Evolution of ageing, costs of reproduction and the fecundity–longevity trade-off in eusocial insects
Eusocial insects provide special opportunities to elucidate the evolution of ageing as queens have apparently evaded costs of reproduction and reversed the fecundity-longevity trade-off generally observed in non-social organisms. But how reproduction affects longevity in eusocial insects has rarely been tested experimentally. In this study, we took advantage of the reproductive plasticity of workers to test the causal role of reproduction in determining longevity in eusocial insects. Using the eusocial bumblebee Bombus terrestris, we found that, in whole colonies, in which workers could freely 'choose' whether to become reproductive, workers' level of ovarian activation was significantly positively associated with longevity and ovary-active workers significantly outlived ovary-inactive workers. By contrast, when reproductivity was experimentally induced in randomly-selected workers, thereby decoupling it from other traits, workers' level of ovarian activation was significantly negatively associated with longevity and ovary-active workers were significantly less long-lived than ovary-inactive workers. These findings show that workers experience costs of reproduction and suggest that intrinsically high-quality individuals can overcome these costs. They also raise the possibility that eusocial insect queens exhibit condition-dependent longevity and hence call into question whether eusociality entails a truly reversed fecundity-longevity trade-off involving a fundamental remodelling of conserved genetic and endocrine networks underpinning ageing.
Data from: Parasites and competitors suppress bacterial pathogen synergistically due to evolutionary trade-offs
Parasites and competitors are important for regulating pathogen densities and subsequent disease dynamics. It is, however, unclear to what extent this is driven by ecological and evolutionary processes. Here we used experimental evolution to study the eco-evolutionary feedbacks between Ralstonia solanacearum bacterial pathogen, Ralstonia-specific phage parasite and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens competitor bacterium in the laboratory and plant rhizosphere. We found that while the phage had a small effect on pathogen densities on its own, it considerably increased the R. solanacearum sensitivity to antibiotics produced by B. amyloliquefaciens. Instead of density effects, this synergy was due to phage-driven increase in phage resistance that led to trade-off with the resistance to B. amyloliquefaciens antibiotics. While no evidence was found for pathogen resistance evolution to B. amyloliquefaciens antibiotics, the fitness cost of adaptation (reduced growth) was highest when the pathogen had evolved in the presence of both parasite and competitor. Qualitatively similar patterns were found between laboratory and greenhouse experiments even though the evolution of phage resistance was considerably attenuated in the tomato rhizosphere. These results suggest that evolutionary trade-offs can impose strong constraints on disease dynamics and that combining phages and antibiotic-producing bacteria could be an efficient way to control agricultural pathogens.
Data from: Artificial selection on walking distance suggests a mobility-sperm competitiveness trade-off
Securing matings is a key determinant of fitness and in many species males are the sex that engages in mate searching. Searching for mates is often associated with increased mobility. This elevated investment in movement is predicted to trade-off with sperm competitiveness, but few studies have directly tested whether this trade-off occurs. Here, we assessed whether artificial selection on mobility affected sperm competitiveness and mating behavior, and if increased mobility was due to increased leg length in red flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum). We found that in general, males selected for decreased mobility copulated for longer, stimulated females more during mating and tended to be better sperm competitors. Surprisingly, they also had longer legs. However, how well males performed in sperm competition depended on females. Males with reduced mobility always copulated for longer than males with high mobility, but this only translated into greater fertilization success in females from control populations and not the selection populations (treatment females). These results are consistent with a mate-searching/mating-duration trade-off and broadly support a trade-off between mobility and sperm competiveness.
Data from: Evidence for a trade-off between host-range breadth and host-use efficiency in aphid parasitoids
"The jack of all trades is a master of none" describes the widely held belief that engaging in many tasks comes at the cost of being unable to do those tasks well. However, empirical evidence for generalist fitness costs remains scarce. We used published data from a long-term field survey of aphid parasitoids to determine if relative specialists are more abundant than generalists on their shared hosts, a pattern that would be expected if generalists suffer a tradeoff between host-range breadth and host-use efficiency. Relative specialists were more abundant than generalists on their shared hosts, but only when we used a measure of specialization that accounts for the taxonomic differences among parasitoids' hosts. These results suggest that a generalist-specialist tradeoff exists within this group of parasitoids, and that the generalist fitness cost depends on the taxonomic breadth, rather than the number, of host species that are used.
Data from: Evolution of fitness trade-offs in locally adapted populations of Pseudomonas fluorescens
Local adaptation seems to be common in natural systems, but the genetic causes of its evolution remain poorly understood. Here we characterize the genetic causes of trade-offs generating local adaptation in populations of Pseudomonas fluorescens that had previously been evolved for specialization on three different carbon resources. We measured the fitness effects of mutations that arose during selection in that environment and in alternative environments to quantify the degree of specialization. We find that all mutations are beneficial in the environment of selection and that those arising later during adaptation are associated with increasingly antagonistic effects in alternative environments compared with those arising earlier, consistent with a multioptima version of Fisher's geometric model of adaptation. We also find that fitness of pairs of beneficial mutations are consistently less than additive in selection environments, producing a pattern of diminishing returns, but are more variable in alternative environments, being either positive or negative. Finally, we find that mutations in genes associated with loss of motility are beneficial across all environments, whereas mutations involving other functions, such as gene regulation, had more variable effects, being more environment specific. Taken together, these results provide a detailed account of the genetics of specialization and suggest that the evolution of trade-offs associated with local adaptation may often result from the antagonistic effects of beneficial mutations substituted later in adaptation.
Data from: High and dry: trade-off in arboreal calling in a treefrog mediated by local environment
Trade-offs shaping behavioral variation are often influenced by the environment. We investigated the role that the environment plays in mediating trade-offs using a widespread frog with a conspicuous mating display, Pseudacris crucifer. We first demonstrated, using playback and desiccation experiments, that calling site selection involves a trade-off between sound transmission and desiccation. We then determined the influence of local environmental conditions on the intensity of the trade-off by examining range-wide behavioral and environmental data. We showed that the benefit of improved call transmission is positively influenced by vegetation density and ground cover. Behavioral data are consistent with this relationship: sites with a greater transmission benefit have increased prevalence of arboreally-calling males. We also found that the prevalence of arboreal calling behavior increases with relative humidity and air temperature, suggesting an influence of these environmental variables on the desiccation cost of arboreal calling. This study provides a clear example of the role of the environment in mediating trade-off intensities and shaping critical behavioral traits.
Data from: Dense dwarfs versus gelatinous giants: the trade-offs and physiological limits determining the body plan of planktonic filter feeders
Most marine plankton have a high energy (carbon) density, but some are gelatinous with approximately hundred times more watery bodies. How do those distinctly different body plans emerge and what are the trade-offs? We address this question by modeling the energy budget of planktonic filter feeders across life forms from micron-sized unicellular microbes like choanoflagellates to centimeter-sized gelatinous tunicates such as salps. We find two equally successful strategies, one being small with high energy density (dense dwarf), and the other being large with low energy density (gelatinous giant). The constraint that forces large - but not small - filter feeders to be gelatinous is identified as a lower limit to the size-specific filter area, below which the energy costs lead to starvation. A further limit is found from the maximum size-specific motor force that restricts the access to optimum strategies. The quantified constraints are discussed in the context of other resource acquisition strategies. We argue that interception feeding strategies can only be accessed by large organisms if they are gelatinous. On the other hand, organisms that use remote prey sensing do not need to be gelatinous, even if they are large.
Data from: The costs of parental care: a meta-analysis of the trade-off between parental effort and survival in birds
A fundamental premise of life-history theory is that organisms that increase current reproductive investment suffer increased mortality. Possibly the most studied life-history phenotypic relationship is the trade-off between parental effort and survival. However, evidence supporting this trade-off is equivocal. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to test the generality of this tenet. Using experimental studies that manipulated parental effort in birds we show that: 1) the effect of parental effort on survival was similar across species regardless of phylogeny, 2) individuals that experienced reduced parental effort had similar survival probabilities than control individuals, regardless of sex, and 3) males that experienced increased parental effort were less likely to survive than control males, whereas females that experienced increased effort were just as likely to survive as control females. Our results suggest that the trade-off between parental effort and survival is more complex than previously assumed. Finally, our study provides recommendations of unexplored avenues of future research into life-history trade-offs.
Data from: Heterogeneity in individual quality and reproductive trade-offs within species
Interspecifically, a reasonable body of evidence supports a trade-off between offspring size and number. However, at the intraspecific level, a whole manner of phenotypic correlations between offspring size and number are observed. These correlations may be predicted when heterogeneity in resource availability, or quality, is considered. Making the assumption that maternal size is a proxy for resource availability, we meta-analytically quantified four phenotypic reproductive correlations within numerous species: (1) maternal size and offspring size, (2) maternal size and offspring number, (3) offspring number and offspring size, and (4) offspring number and offspring size after controlling for maternal size. Within species, maternal size showed a positive correlation with both offspring size and number. Despite this consistency, no correlation between offspring size and number was found. After controlling for maternal size, however, offspring size and number showed a significant negative correlation. A phylogenetic component of our analysis accounted for little heterogeneity in the data, suggesting that our findings show remarkable consistency across taxa. Overall, our results support an observable phenotypic trade-off between offspring size and number. However, this analysis also highlights the importance of considering quality when examining trade-offs, a task that is not always straightforward as quality is context dependant.
Data from: A trade-off between thickness and length in the zebra finch sperm mid-piece
The sperm mid-piece has traditionally been considered to be the engine that powers sperm. Larger mid-pieces have therefore been assumed to provide greater energetic capacity. However, in the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata, a recent study showed a surprising negative relationship between mid-piece length and sperm energy content. Using a multidimensional approach to study mid-piece structure, we tested whether this unexpected relationship can be explained by a trade-off between mid-piece length and mid-piece thickness and/or cristae density inside the mitochondrial helix. We used selective plane illumination microscopy to study mid-piece structure from three-dimensional images of zebra finch sperm and used high-resolution transmission electron microscopy to quantify mitochondrial density. Contrary to the assumption that longer mid-pieces are larger and therefore produce or contain a greater amount of energy, our results indicate that the amount of mitochondrial material is consistent across mid-pieces of varying lengths, and longer mid-pieces are simply proportionately 'thinner'.
Data from: A trade-off between oxidative stress resistance and DNA repair plays a role in the evolution of elevated mutation rates in bacteria
The dominant paradigm for the evolution of mutator alleles in bacterial populations is that they spread by indirect selection for linked beneficial mutations when bacteria are poorly adapted. In this paper, we challenge the ubiquity of this paradigm by demonstrating that a clinically important stressor, hydrogen peroxide, generates direct selection for an elevated mutation rate in the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a consequence of a trade-off between the fidelity of DNA repair and hydrogen peroxide resistance. We demonstrate that the biochemical mechanism underlying this trade-off in the case of mutS is the elevated secretion of catalase by the mutator strain. Our results provide the first experimental evidence that direct selection can favour mutator alleles in bacterial populations, and pave the way for future studies to understand how mutation and DNA repair are linked to stress responses and how this impacts the evolution of bacterial mutation rates.
Data from: Life-history trade-offs mediate 'personality' variation in two colour morphs of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum
(1) Life-history trade-offs are considered a major driving force in the emergence of consistent behavioural differences (personality variation); but empirical tests are scarce. (2) We investigated links between a personality trait (escape response), life-history and state variables (growth rate, size and age at first reproduction, age-dependent reproductive rates, lifetime reproductive success, lifespan) in red and green colour morphs of clonal pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum. Escape response (dropping/non-dropping off a plant upon a predatory attack) was measured repeatedly to classify individuals as consistent droppers, consistent non-droppers or inconsistents. (3) Red morphs experienced stronger trade-offs between early reproduction and lifespan than green morphs; and red consistent (non-)droppers had highest lifetime reproductive success. Red droppers followed a risk-averse life-history strategy (high late reproduction), red non-droppers a risk-prone strategy (high early reproduction), while reproductive rates were equivalent for all green behavioural types and red inconsistents. (4) This suggests that red morphs suffer the highest costs of dropping (they are most conspicuous to predators), which 'equivalates' fitness payoffs to both risk-takers (red non-droppers) and risk-averse red droppers. The strong trade-off also means that committing to a particular lifestyle (being consistent) maximises fitness. (5) Our study suggests that life-history trade-offs likely mediate personality variation but effects might depend on interactions with other organismal characteristics (here: colour morph).
Data from: Effects of variation in resource acquisition during different stages of the life cycle on life-history traits and trade-offs in a burying beetle
Individual variation in resource acquisition should have consequences for life-history traits and trade-offs between them because such variation determines how many resources can be allocated to different life-history functions, such as growth, survival and reproduction. Since resource acquisition can vary across an individual's life cycle, the consequences for life-history traits and trade-offs may depend on when during the life cycle resources are limited. We tested for differential and/or interactive effects of variation in resource acquisition in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. We designed an experiment in which individuals acquired high or low amounts of resources across three stages of the life cycle: larval development, prior to breeding and the onset of breeding in a fully crossed design. Resource acquisition during larval development and prior to breeding affected egg size and offspring survival, respectively. Meanwhile, resource acquisition at the onset of breeding affected size and number of both eggs and offspring. In addition, there were interactive effects between resource acquisition at different stages on egg size and offspring survival. However, only when females acquired few resources at the onset of breeding was there evidence for a trade-off between offspring size and number. Our results demonstrate that individual variation in resource acquisition during different stages of the life cycle has important consequences for life-history traits but limited effects on trade-offs. This suggests that, in species that acquire a fixed-sized resource at the onset of breeding, the size of this resource has larger effects on life-history trade-offs than resources acquired at earlier stages.
Data from: Gender-related behaviors: evidence for a trade-off between sexual functions in a hermaphrodite
According to sex allocation theory, hermaphrodites are expected to allocate most of their reproductive resources to the female function when there is a low level of mate competition and to shift them to the male function when mate competition increases: sex allocation theory assumes that there is a trade-off between sexual functions. Although several studies highlight some adjustments of sex allocation according to mating opportunities, empirical support for the trade-off between sexual functions is surprisingly scarce. Here we argue that this lack of support for a trade-off might partially depend on the fact that sex allocation studies often overlook gender-related traits other than gamete production. We investigated whether parental care (a putative female behavior) and motility (a proxy for mate searching, and a putative male behavior) varied plastically according to mating opportunities in the hermaphroditic polychaete worm Ophryotrocha diadema. We found that parental care was higher under low mating opportunities while motility increased under high mating opportunities, and that the two behaviors were negatively correlated with each other – i.e. there was a trade-off between them. We also observed the behavior of a separate-sex species closely-related to O. diadema – Ophryotrocha labronica. We found that males moved more than females in the separate-sex species and that mothers performed more parental care than fathers in both Ophryotrocha species. Our results provide convincing evidence in support of a trade-off between sexual functions and highlight the importance of investigating sex-allocation adjustments in reproductive traits others than gametes.
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