Find research datasets worth reusing

Data from: Bucking the trend: genetic analysis reveals high diversity, large population size and low differentiation in a deep ocean cetacean

Understanding the genetic structure of a population is essential to its conservation and management. We report the level of genetic diversity and determine the population structure of a cryptic deep ocean cetacean, the Gray's beaked whale (Mesoplodon grayi). We analysed 530 bp of mitochondrial control region and 12 microsatellite loci from 94 individuals stranded around New Zealand and Australia. The samples cover a large area of the species distribution (~6000 km) and were collected over a 22-year period. We show high genetic diversity (h=0.933–0.987, π=0.763–0.996% and Rs=4.22–4.37, He=0.624–0.675), and, in contrast to other cetaceans, we found a complete lack of genetic structure in both maternally and biparentally inherited markers. The oceanic habitats around New Zealand are diverse with extremely deep waters, seamounts and submarine canyons that are suitable for Gray's beaked whales and their prey. We propose that the abundance of this rich habitat has promoted genetic homogeneity in this species. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the lack of beaked whale sightings is the result of their low abundance, but this is in contrast to our estimates of female effective population size based on mitochondrial data. In conclusion, the high diversity and lack of genetic structure can be explained by a historically large population size, in combination with no known exploitation, few apparent behavioural barriers and abundant habitat.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Sex change and effective population size: implications for population genetic studies in marine fish

Large variance in reproductive success is the primary factor that reduces effective population size (Ne) in natural populations. In sequentially hermaphroditic (sex-changing) fish, the sex ratio is typically skewed and biased towards the 'first' sex, while reproductive success increases considerably after sex change. Therefore, sex-changing fish populations are theoretically expected to have lower Ne than gonochorists (separate sexes), assuming all other parameters are essentially equal. In this study, we estimate Ne from genetic data collected from two ecologically similar species living along the eastern coast of South Africa: one gonochoristic, the 'santer' sea bream Cheimerius nufar, and one protogynous (female-first) sex changer, the 'slinger' sea bream Chrysoblephus puniceus. For both species, no evidence of genetic structuring, nor significant variation in genetic diversity, was found in the study area. Estimates of contemporary Ne were significantly lower in the protogynous species, but the same pattern was not apparent over historical timescales. Overall, our results show that sequential hermaphroditism may affect Ne differently over varying time frames, and that demographic signatures inferred from genetic markers with different inheritance modes also need to be interpreted cautiously, in relation to sex-changing life histories.

Data from: Optimizing the trade-off between spatial and genetic sampling efforts in patchy populations: towards a better assessment of functional connectivity using an individual-based sampling scheme

Genetic data are increasingly used in landscape ecology for the indirect assessment of functional connectivity, i.e. the permeability of landscape to movements of organisms. Among available tools, matrix correlation analyses (e.g. Mantel tests or mixed models) are commonly used to test for the relationship between pairwise genetic distances and movement costs incurred by dispersing individuals. When organisms are spatially clustered, a population-based sampling scheme (PSS) is usually performed, so that a large number of genotypes can be used to compute pairwise genetic distances on the basis of allelic frequencies. Because of financial constraints, this kind of sampling scheme implies a drastic reduction in the number of sampled aggregates, thereby reducing sampling coverage at the landscape level. We used matrix correlation analyses on simulated and empirical genetic datasets to investigate the efficiency of an individual-based sampling scheme (ISS) in detecting isolation-by-distance and isolation-by-barrier patterns. Provided that pseudo-replication issues are taken into account (e.g. through restricted permutations in Mantel tests), we showed that the use of inter-individual measures of genotypic dissimilarity may efficiently replace inter-population measures of genetic differentiation: the sampling of only three or four individuals per aggregate may be sufficient to efficiently detect specific genetic patterns in most situations. The ISS proved to be a promising methodological alternative to the more conventional PSS, offering much flexibility in the spatial design of sampling schemes and ensuring an optimal representativeness of landscape heterogeneity in data, with few aggregates left unsampled. Each strategy offering specific advantages, a combined use of both sampling schemes is discussed.

Data from: Gene flow from an adaptively divergent source causes rescue through genetic and demographic factors in two wild populations of Trinidadian guppies

Genetic rescue, an increase in population growth owing to the infusion of new alleles, can aid the persistence of small populations, but its use as a management tool is limited by a lack of empirical data geared towards predicting effects of gene flow on local adaptation and demography. Experimental translocations provide an ideal opportunity to monitor the demographic consequences of gene flow. In this study we take advantage of two experimental introductions of Trinidadian guppies to test the effects of gene flow on downstream native populations. We individually marked guppies from the native populations to monitor population dynamics for 3 months before and 26 months after gene flow. We genotyped all individuals caught during the first 17 months at microsatellite loci to classify individuals by their genetic ancestry: native, immigrant, F1 hybrid, F2 hybrid, or backcross. Our study documents a combination of demographic and genetic rescue over multiple generations under fully natural conditions. Within both recipient populations, we found substantial and long-term increases in population size that could be attributed to high survival and recruitment caused by immigration and gene flow from the introduction sites. Our results suggest that low levels of gene flow, even from a divergent ecotype, can provide a substantial demographic boost to small populations, which may allow them to withstand environmental stochasticity.

Data from: Spatial and ecological population genetic structures within two island-endemic Aeonium species of different niche width

The Crassulacean genus Aeonium is a well-known example for plant species radiation on oceanic archipelagos. However, while allopatric speciation among islands is documented for this genus, the role of intra-island speciation due to population divergence by topographical isolation or ecological heterogeneity has not yet been addressed. The aim of this study was to investigate intraspecific genetic structures and to identify spatial and ecological drivers of genetic population differentiation on the island scale. We analyzed inter simple sequence repeat variation within two island-endemic Aeonium species of La Palma: one widespread generalist that covers a large variety of different habitat types (Ae. davidbramwellii) and one narrow ecological specialist (Ae. nobile), in order to assess evolutionary potentials on this island. Gene pool differentiation and genetic diversity patterns were associated with major landscape structures in both species, with phylogeographic implications. However, overall levels of genetic differentiation were low. For the generalist species, outlier loci detection and loci–environment correlation approaches indicated moderate signatures of divergent selection pressures linked to temperature and precipitation variables, while the specialist species missed such patterns. Our data point to incipient differentiation among populations, emphasizing that ecological heterogeneity and topographical structuring within the small scales of an island can foster evolutionary processes. Very likely, such processes have contributed to the radiation of Aeonium on the Canary Islands. There is also support for different evolutionary mechanisms between generalist and specialist species.

opencc-zeroDec 2011View details →

Data from: Long-term genetic monitoring reveals contrasting changes in the genetic composition of newly established populations of the intertidal snail Bembicium vittatum

Newly established populations are susceptible to founder events that reduce genetic variation. This may be counterbalanced by gene flow after populations become established or founders coming from genetically different populations. However, initial gains in genetic diversity may be short-lived if there is limited mixing between lineages and subsequent inbreeding or if one lineage sweeps to fixation through selection or genetic drift. Here, we report on the genetic changes taking place within two newly established populations of intertidal snail over a 15-year period (~ 10 generations). Each translocation was set up using multiple, genetically distinct source populations. Our data show that higher levels of variation in the translocated populations compared to the source populations were maintained over time for both nuclear (microsatellite) and mitochondrial genes. Small changes in allele and haplotype frequencies were observed in the source populations and in one of the translocated populations, but marked changes were evident in the other, where there was a dramatic shift towards the genetic make-up of one of the source populations. These genetic changes occurred despite relatively large numbers of founders (200- 374 adults) and no evidence of the population experiencing a severe reduction in effective population size. Our study shows that the genetic composition of newly established populations can vary greatly over time and that genetic outcomes can be highly variable, and significantly different to expectations, even when they are established using high numbers of individuals and involve source populations from the same geographic regions.

opencc-zeroDec 2013View details →

Data from: Estimating quantitative genetic parameters in wild populations: a comparison of pedigree and genomic approaches

The estimation of quantitative genetic parameters in wild populations is generally limited by the accuracy and completeness of the available pedigree information. Using relatedness at genome-wide markers can potentially remove this limitation and lead to less biased and more precise estimates. We estimated heritability, maternal genetic effects and genetic correlations for body size traits in an unmanaged long-term study population of Soay sheep on St Kilda using three increasingly complete and accurate estimates of relatedness: (1) Pedigree 1, using observation-derived maternal links and microsatellite-derived paternal links; (2) Pedigree 2, using SNP-derived assignment of both maternity and paternity; and (3) whole-genome relatedness at 37,037 autosomal SNPs. In initial analyses, heritability estimates were strikingly similar for all three methods while standard errors were systematically lower in analyses based on Pedigree 2 and genomic relatedness. Genetic correlations were generally strong, differed little between the three estimates of relatedness and the standard errors declined only very slightly with improved relatedness information. When partitioning maternal effects into separate genetic and environmental components, maternal genetic effects found in juvenile traits increased substantially across the three relatedness estimates. Heritability declined compared to parallel models where only a maternal environment effect was fitted, suggesting that maternal genetic effects are confounded with direct genetic effects and that more accurate estimates of relatedness were better able to separate maternal genetic effects from direct genetic effects. We found that the heritability captured by SNP markers asymptoted at about half the SNPs available, suggesting that denser marker panels are not necessarily required for precise and unbiased heritability estimates. Finally, we present guidelines for the use of genomic relatedness in future quantitative genetics studies in natural populations.

opencc-zeroDec 2013View details →

Data from: Genetic diversity and population structure of the Pelagic Thresher Shark (Alopias pelagicus) in the Pacific Ocean: evidence for two evolutionarily significant units

There has been an increasing concern about shark overexploitation in the last decade, especially for open ocean shark species, where there is a paucity of data about their life histories and population dynamics. Little is known regarding the population structure of the pelagic thresher shark, Alopias pelagicus. Though an earlier study using mtDNA control region data, showed evidence for differences between eastern and western Pacific populations, the study was hampered by low sample size and sparse geographic coverage, particularly a lack of samples from the central Pacific. Here, we present the population structure of Alopias pelagicus analyzing 351 samples from six different locations across the Pacific Ocean. Using data from mitochondrial DNA COI sequences and seven microsatellite loci we found evidence of strong population differentiation between western and eastern Pacific populations and evidence for reciprocally monophyly for organelle haplotypes and significant divergence of allele frequencies at nuclear loci, suggesting the existence of two Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESU) in the Pacific Ocean. Interestingly, the population in Hawaii appears to be composed of both ESUs in what seems to be clear sympatry with reproductive isolation. These results may indicate the existence of a new cryptic species in the Pacific Ocean. The presence of these distinct ESUs highlights the need for revised management plans for this highly exploited shark throughout its range.

Data from: Impact of population expansion on genetic diversity and structure of river otters (Lontra canadensis) in central North America

Populations of North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) declined throughout large portions of the continent during the early 1900s due to habitat degradation and unregulated trapping. River otters had been extirpated in North Dakota (ND), but the Red River Valley has since been recolonized, with potential source populations including the neighboring states of Minnesota or South Dakota, or the Canadian province of Manitoba (MB). We genotyped 9 microsatellite loci in 121 samples to determine the source population of river otters in the Red River Valley of ND, as well as to assess population structure and diversity of river otters in central North America. Overall, genetic diversity was high, with an average observed heterozygosity of 0.58. Genetic differentiation was low (F ST < 0.05) between river otters in ND and those of Minnesota, suggesting that eastern ND was recolonized by river otters from Minnesota. River otters from MB were genetically distinct from all other sampled populations. Low genetic differentiation (F ST = 0.044) between South Dakota and Louisiana (LA) suggested that reintroductions using LA stock were successful. The genetic distinctiveness of river otters from different geographic regions should be considered when deciding on source populations for future translocations.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Beyond the Coral Triangle: high genetic diversity and near panmixia in Singapore's populations of the broadcast spawning sea star Protoreaster nodosus

The Coral Triangle is widely considered the most important centre of marine biodiversity in Asia while areas on its periphery such as the South China Sea, have received much less interest. Here, we demonstrate that a small population of the knobbly sea star Protoreaster nodosus in Singapore has similarly high levels of genetic diversity as comparable Indonesian populations from the Coral Triangle. The high genetic diversity of this population is remarkable because it is maintained despite decades of continued anthropogenic disturbance. We postulate that it is probably due to broadcast spawning which is likely to maintain high levels of population connectivity. To test this, we analysed 6140 genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci for Singapore's populations and demonstrate a pattern of near panmixia. We here document a second case of high genetic diversity and low genetic structure for a broadcast spawner in Singapore, which suggests that such species have high resilience against anthropogenic disturbances. The study demonstrates the feasibility and power of using genome-wide SNPs for connectivity studies of marine invertebrates without a sequenced genome.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Population genetic inferences using immune gene SNPs mirror patterns inferred by microsatellites

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are replacing microsatellites for population genetic analyses, but it is not apparent how many SNPs are needed or how well SNPs correlate with microsatellites. We used data from the gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus—a species with small populations, to compare SNPs and microsatellites to estimate population genetic parameters. Specifically, we compared one SNP data set (16 tortoises from four populations sequenced at 17 901 SNPs) to two microsatellite data sets, a full data set of 101 tortoises and a partial data set of 16 tortoises previously genotyped at 10 microsatellites. For the full microsatellite data set, observed heterozygosity, expected heterozygosity and FST were correlated between SNPs and microsatellites; however, allelic richness was not. The same was true for the partial microsatellite data set, except that allelic richness, but not observed heterozygosity, was correlated. The number of clusters estimated by structure differed for each data set (SNPs = 2; partial microsatellite = 3; full microsatellite = 4). Principle component analyses (PCA) showed four clusters for all data sets. More than 800 SNPs were needed to correlate with allelic richness, observed heterozygosity and expected heterozygosity, but only 100 were needed for FST. The number of SNPs typically obtained from next-generation sequencing (NGS) far exceeds the number needed to correlate with microsatellite parameter estimates. Our study illustrates that diversity, FST and PCA results from microsatellites can mirror those obtained with SNPs. These results may be generally applicable to small populations, a defining feature of endangered and threatened species, because theory predicts that genetic drift will tend to outweigh selection in small populations.

Data from: Genetic variation and population structure in the endangered Hermann's tortoise: the roles of geography and human-mediated processes

The Hermanni's tortoise (Testudo hermanni) is an endangered land tortoise distributed in disjoint populations across Mediterranean Europe. We investigated its genetic variation by typing one mitochondrial locus and nine nuclear microsatellites in approximately 300 individuals from 22 localities. Our goal was to understand the relative impact of natural and human-mediated processes in shaping the genetic structure, and to identify the genetic priorities for the conservation of this species. We found that i) all geographic areas are highly differentiated, mainly as a function of their distance but with a clear genetic discontinuity (Fst values larger than 0.4) between the Eastern and the Western subspecies; ii) the contact zone between subspecies is located farthest to the west than previously believed, and it probably coincides with the delta of the largest Italian river; iii) extinction events due to climatic conditions in the Upper Palaeolithic and subsequent human-mediated translocations in the Neolithic possibly explain the unexpected similarity among Spain, Sicily and Corsica. For conservation purposes, the large majority of genetic pools appears autochthonous, although hybridization among subspecies, related to extensive 20th century trade of tortoises across Europe, is observed in Spain and some Italian samples. Most populations do not seem at immediate risk of low genetic variation, except the French population, which has very low nuclear genetic diversity (heterozygosity = 0.25) and where 50 out of 51 sampled animals shared the same mitochondrial sequence. In general, restocking and reintroduction plans should carefully consider the genetic background of the individuals.

Data from: Contrasting genetic diversity and population structure among three sympatric Madagascan shorebirds: parallels with rarity, endemism, and dispersal

Understanding the relative contributions of intrinsic and extrinsic factors to population structure and genetic diversity is a central goal of conservation and evolutionary genetics. One way to achieve this is through comparative population genetic analysis of sympatric sister taxa, which allows evaluation of intrinsic factors such as population demography and life history while controlling for phylogenetic relatedness and geography. We used ten conserved microsatellites to explore the population structure and genetic diversity of three sympatric and closely related plover species in southwestern Madagascar: Kittlitz's plover (Charadrius pecuarius), white-fronted plover (C. marginatus), and Madagascar plover (C. thoracicus). Bayesian clustering revealed strong population structure in the rare and endemic Madagascar plover, intermediate population structure in the white-fronted plover, and no detectable population structure in the geographically widespread Kittlitz's plover. In contrast, allelic richness and heterozygosity were highest for the Kittlitz's plover, intermediate for the white-fronted plover and lowest for the Madagascar plover. No evidence was found in support of the "watershed mechanism" proposed to facilitate vicariant divergence of Madagascan lemurs and reptiles, which we attribute to the vagility of birds. However, we found a significant pattern of genetic isolation by distance among populations of the Madagascar plover, but not for the other two species. These findings suggest that interspecific variation in rarity, endemism, and dispersal propensity may influence genetic structure and diversity, even in highly vagile species.

opencc-zeroNov 2019View details →

Data from: Urbanization and population genetic structure of the Panama City crayfish (Procambarus econfinae)

<p>For species with geographically restricted distributions, the impacts of habitat loss and fragmentation on long-term persistence may be particularly pronounced. We examined the genetic structure of Panama City crayfish (PCC), Procambarus econfinae, whose historical distribution is limited to an area approximately 145 km2, largely within the limits of Panama City and eastern Bay County, Florida, USA. Currently, PCC occupy approximately twenty-eight percent of its historical range, with suitable habitat composed of fragmented patches in the highly urbanized western portion of the range and managed plantations in the more contiguous eastern portion of the range. We used 1,640 anonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms to evaluate the effects of anthropogenic habitat modification on the genetic diversity and population structure of 161 PCC sampled from across it known distribution. First, we examined the urban habitat patches in the west compared to less-developed habitat patches in the east. Second, we used Approximate Bayesian Computation to model inferences on the demographic history of eastern and western populations. We found anthropogenic habitat modifications explain the genetic structure of PCC range-wide. Clustering analyses revealed significant genetic structure between and within eastern and western regions. Estimates of divergence between east and west were consistent with urban growth in the mid-20th Century. PCC have low genetic diversity and high levels of inbreeding and relatedness, indicating populations are small and isolated. Our results suggest that PCC have been strongly affected by habitat loss and fragmentation and management strategies, including legal protection, translocations, or reintroductions, may be necessary to ensure long-term persistence.</p>

opencc-zeroAug 2019View details →

Data from: Genetic diversity and population structure of Glossina morsitans morsitans in the active foci of human African trypanosomiasis in Zambia and Malawi

The tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans morsitans, is a significant problem in Zambia and Malawi. It is the vector for the human infective parasite Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which causes human African trypanosomiasis, and various Trypanosoma species, which cause African animal trypanosomiasis. Understanding the genetic diversity and population structure of G. m. morsitans is the basis of elucidating the connectivity of the tsetse fly populations, information that is essential in implementing successful tsetse fly control activities. This study conducted a population genetic study using partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase gene 1 (CO1) and 10 microsatellite loci to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of G. m. morsitans captured in the major HAT foci in Zambia and Malawi. We have included 108 and 99 G. m. morsitans samples for CO1 and microsatellite analyses respectively. Our results suggest the presence of two different genetic clusters of G. m. morsitans, existing East and West of the escarpment of the Great Rift Valley. We have also revealed genetic similarity between the G. m. morsitans in Kasungu National Park and those in the Luangwa river basin in Zambia, indicating that this population should also be included in this historical tsetse belt. Although further investigation is necessary to illustrate the whole picture in East and Southern Africa, this study has extended our knowledge of the population structure of G. m. morsitans in Southern Africa.

opencc-zeroDec 2017View details →

Data from: Population genetics reveal Myotis keenii (Keen's myotis) and Myotis evotis (long-eared myotis) to be a single species

Abstract: Recognizing delineations of gene flow among groups of animals can be challenging, but necessary for conservation and management. Of particular importance is the identification of species boundaries. Several physical and genetic traits have been used with mixed success to distinguish Myotis keenii (Merriam, 1895) (Keen's myotis) and Myotis evotis (H. Allen, 1864) (long-eared myotis), but it is unclear whether species distinction is biologically warranted. We generated 12-14 microsatellite loci genotypes for 275 long-eared Myotis representing 4 species -- M. keenii, M. evotis, Myotis septentrionalis (Trouessart, 1897) (northern myotis), and Myotis thysanodes Miller, 1897 (fringed myotis) -- from across northwestern North America, and 23 Myotis lucifugus (Le Conte, 1831) (little brown myotis) as outgroup. Population genetics analyses revealed four well defined groups (species): M. septentrionalis, M. thysanodes, M. lucifugus and a single group comprising M. keenii and M. evotis. We document high rates of gene flow within M. evotis/keenii. Cytochrome b gene (mtDNA) sequencing failed to resolve morphologically identifiable species. We highlight the importance of geographically thorough investigation of genetic connectivity (nuclear markers) when assessing taxonomic status of closely related groups. We document a morphometric cline within M. evotis/keenii that may in part explain earlier analyses that led to the description of the smaller-bodied M. keenii (type locality Haida Gwaii). We conclude that M. keenii does not qualify as a genetic or biological species.

Data from: Patterns of genetic diversity reveal multiple introductions and recurrent founder effects during range expansion in invasive populations of Geranium carolinianum (Geraniaceae)

Genetic diversity, and thus the adaptive potential of invasive populations, is largely based on three factors: patterns of genetic diversity in the species' native range, the number and location of introductions, and the number of founding individuals per introduction. Specifically, reductions in genetic diversity ("founder effects") should be stronger for species with low within-population diversity in their native range and few introductions of few individuals to the invasive range. We test these predictions with Geranium carolinianum, a winter annual herb native to North America and invasive in China. We measure the extent of founder effects using allozymes and microsatellites, and ask whether this is consistent with its colonization history and patterns of diversity in the native range. In the native range, genetic diversity is higher and structure is lower than expected based on life-history traits. In China, our results provide evidence for multiple introductions near Nanjing, Jiangsu province, with subsequent range expansion to the west and south. Patterns of genetic diversity across China reveal weak founder effects that are driven largely by low- diversity populations at the expansion front, away from the introduction location. This suggests that reduced diversity in China has resulted from successive founder events during range expansion, and that the loss of genetic diversity in the Nanjing area was mitigated by multiple introductions from diverse source populations. This has implications for the future of G. carolinianum in China, as continued gene flow among populations should eventually increase genetic diversity within the more recently founded populations.

opencc-zeroDec 2010View details →

Data from: The quantitative genetics of incipient speciation: heritability and genetic correlations of skeletal traits in populations of diverging Favia fragum ecomorphs.

Recent speciation events provide potential opportunities to understand the microevolution of reproductive isolation. We used a marker-based approach and a common garden to estimate the additive genetic variation in skeletal traits in a system of two ecomorphs within the coral species Favia fragum: a Tall ecomorph that is a seagrass specialist, and a Short ecomorph that is most abundant on coral reefs. Considering both ecomorphs, we found significant narrow-sense heritability (h²) in a suite of measurements that define corallite architecture, and could partition additive and non-additive variation for some traits. We found positive genetic correlations for homologous height and length measurements among different types of vertical plates (costosepta) within corallites, but negative correlations between height and length within, as well as between costosepta. Within ecomorphs, h² estimates were generally lower, compared to the combined ecomorph analysis. Marker-based estimates of h² were comparable to broad-sense heritability (H) obtained from parent-offspring regressions in a common garden for most traits, and similar genetic co-variance matrices for common garden and wild populations may indicate relatively small G × E interactions. The patterns of additive genetic variation in this system invite hypotheses of divergent selection or genetic drift as potential evolutionary drivers of reproductive isolation.

Data from: Population genetic structure within and among seasonal site types in the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) and the northern long-eared bat (M. septentrionalis)

During late summer and early autumn, temperate bats migrate from their summering sites to swarming sites, where mating likely occurs. However, the extent to which individuals of a single summering site migrate to the same swarming site, and vice versa, is not known. We examined the migratory connectivity between summering and swarming sites in two temperate, North American, bat species, the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) and the northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis). Using mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers, we examined population structuring within and among summering and swarming sites. Both species exhibited moderate degrees of mitochondrial DNA differentiation (little brown bat: FST(SWARMING) = 0.093, FST(SWARMING) = 0.052; northern long-eared bat: FST(SWARMING) = 0.117, FST(SWARMING) = 0.043) and little microsatellite DNA differentiation among summering and among swarming sites. Haplotype diversity was significantly higher at swarming sites than summering sites, supporting the idea that swarming sites are comprised of individuals from various summering sites. Further, pairwise analyses suggest that swarming sites are not necessarily comprised of only individuals from the most proximal summering colonies.