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1,316 results for “Trade”
Data from: Density-dependent, central-place foraging in a grazing herbivore: competition and trade-offs in time allocation near water
Optimal foraging theory addresses one of the core challenges of ecology: predicting the distribution and abundance of species. Tests of hypotheses of optimal foraging, however, often focus on a single conceptual model rather than drawing upon the collective body of theory, precluding generalization. Here we demonstrate links between two established theoretical frameworks predicting animal movements and resource use: central-place foraging and density-dependent habitat selection. Our goal is to better understand how the nature of critical, centrally placed resources like water (or minerals, breathing holes, breeding sites, etc.) might govern selection for food (energy) resources obtained elsewhere – a common situation for animals living in natural conditions. We empirically test our predictions using movement data from a large herbivore distributed along a gradient of water availability (feral horses, Sable Island, Canada, 2008–2013). Horses occupying western Sable Island obtain freshwater at ponds while in the east horses must drink at self-excavated wells (holes). We studied the implications of differential access to water (time needed for a horse to obtain water) on selection for vegetation associations. Consistent with predictions of density-dependent habitat selection, horses were reduced to using poorer-quality habitat (heathland) more than expected close to water (where densities were relatively high), but were free to select for higher-quality grasslands farther from water. Importantly, central-place foraging was clearly influenced by the type of water-source used (ponds vs. holes, the latter with greater time constraints on access). Horses with more freedom to travel (those using ponds) selected for grasslands at greater distances and continued to select grasslands at higher densities, whereas horses using water holes showed very strong density-dependence in how habitat could be selected. Knowledge of more than one theoretical framework may be required to explain observed variation in foraging behavior of animals where multiple constraints simultaneously influence resource selection.
Data from: Sign epistasis limits evolutionary trade-offs at the confluence of single- and multi-carbon metabolism in Methylobacterium extorquens AM1
Adaptation of one set of traits is often accompanied by attenuation of traits important in other selective environments, leading to fitness trade-offs. The mechanisms that either promote or prevent the emergence of trade-offs remain largely unknown, and are difficult to discern in most systems. Here, we investigate the basis of trade-offs that emerged during experimental evolution of Methylobacterium extorquens AM1 to distinct growth substrates. After 1500 generations of adaptation to a multi-carbon substrate, succinate (S), many lineages had lost the ability to use one-carbon compounds such as methanol (M), generating a mixture of M+ and M− evolved phenotypes. We show that trade-offs in M− strains consistently arise via antagonistic pleiotropy through recurrent selection for loss-of-function mutations to ftfL (formate-tetrahydrofolate ligase), which improved growth on S while simultaneously eliminating growth on M. But if loss of FtfL was beneficial, why were M trade-offs not found in all populations? We discovered that eliminating FtfL was not universally beneficial on S, as it was neutral or even deleterious in certain evolved lineages that remained M+. This suggests that sign epistasis with earlier arising mutations prevented the emergence of mutations that drove trade-offs through antagonistic pleiotropy, limiting the evolution of metabolic specialists in some populations.
Data from: Neighbor effects on tree architecture: functional trade-offs balancing crown competitiveness with wind resistance
1. The architecture of trees is the result of constrained, morphologically plastic growth—constrained by an underlying architectural model embedded in their genome, the structure of which can be significantly altered during growth to match the changing environmental conditions to which the tree is exposed. Here, we examined the hypothesis that crowding from neighbors should cause trees to optimize traits for light competition at the expense of wind resistance, with the reverse being true for trees lacking neighbors. Previous studies have examined the influence of light competition or wind resistance on shaping tree architecture, but few, if any, have simultaneously addressed tradeoffs for optimizing these traits in response to crowding from neighboring trees in forests, as compared to open-grown conditions. 2. We studied the response of tree- and branch-level architectural traits of temperate, broad-leaved, deciduous tree species of differing shade tolerance and wood strength from multiple locations across the northeastern United States. Trees ranged in size (4 to 83 cm diameter at 1.3 m) and crowding conditions (open-grown and forests) and occupied different canopy positions. The open-grown trees represented a null condition, where the lack of neighboring trees to shape architectural traits could be contrasted with the influence of different levels of crowding in forests. 3. Our results show strong evidence for a tree neighborhood-induced convergence of architectural traits across species and conditions, even when trees are growing in urban rather than natural forest conditions. After accounting for crowding, the effects of species and sample location contributed very little to explaining variation in architectural traits. One exception was crown dimensions, for which species-specific differences explained about 15% of the residual variation. 4. Under open-grown conditions, alleviation of light competition caused trees to develop relatively large crowns and branches and a squat growth form suitable to resist greater wind exposure. By contrast, increasing shading from neighboring trees caused forest-grown trees to become increasingly more spindly in the main stem, with slender branches sparsely distributed over a disproportionately large crown volume—presumably to maximize light capture. Though the latter is an intrinsically less wind-stable form, it can be adopted to increase light capture, because neighboring trees reduce exposure to the wind, which should greatly reduce the likelihood of stem breakage or uprooting under critical wind pressures.
Data from: Genomic evidence that resource-based trade-offs limit host-range expansion in a seed beetle
Trade-offs have often been invoked to explain the evolution of ecological specialization. Phytophagous insects have been especially well studied, but there has been little evidence that resource-based trade-offs contribute to the evolution of host specialization in this group. Here, we combine experimental evolution and partial genome resequencing of replicate seed beetle selection lines to test the trade-off hypothesis and measure the repeatability of evolution. Bayesian estimates of selection coefficients suggest that rapid adaptation to a poor host (lentil) was mediated by standing genetic variation at multiple genetic loci and involved many of the same variants in replicate lines. Sublines that were then switched back to the ancestral host (mung bean) showed a more gradual and variable (less repeatable) loss of adaptation to lentil. We were able to obtain estimates of variance effective population sizes from genome-wide differences in allele frequencies within and between lines. These estimates were relatively large, which suggests that the contribution of genetic drift to the loss of adaptation following reversion was small. Instead, we find that some alleles that were favored on lentil were selected against during reversion on mung bean, consistent with the genetic trade-off hypothesis.
FIGURE 1 in Notes on Bulbophyllum (Dendrobiinae; Epidendroideae; Orchidaceae): two new species and the dilemmas of species discovery via illegal trade
FIGURE 1. Screenshots of two online advertisements for Bulbophyllum kubahense (accessed Jan. 2014)
FIGURE 5 in Notes on Bulbophyllum (Dendrobiinae; Epidendroideae; Orchidaceae): two new species and the dilemmas of species discovery via illegal trade
FIGURE 5. Bulbophyllum dasystachys (Vermeulen 3144, cult. Christiansen). Photo: J.J. Vermeulen
Trade-off between fecundity and survival generates stabilizing selection on gall size
<p>Complex interactions within multi-trophic communities are fundamental to the evolution of individual species that reside within them. One common outcome of species interactions are fitness trade-offs, where traits adaptive in some circumstances are maladaptive in others. Here, we identify a fitness trade-off between fecundity and survival in the cynipid wasp <i>Callirhytis quercusbatatoides</i> that induces multi-chambered galls on the stem of its host plant <i>Quercus virginiana</i>. We first quantified this trade-off in natural populations by documenting two relationships: a positive association between the trait gall size and fecundity, as larger galls contain more offspring, and a negative association between gall size and survival, as larger galls are attacked by birds at a higher rate. Next, we performed a field-based experimental evolution study where birds were excluded from the entire canopy of 11 large host trees for five years. As a result of the five-year release from avian predators, we observed a significant shift to larger galls per tree. Overall, our study demonstrates how two opposing forces of selection can generate stabilizing selection on a critical phenotypic trait in wild populations, and how traits can evolve rapidly in the predicted direction when conditions change.</p>
Natural disturbance impacts on trade-offs and co-benefits of forest biodiversity and carbon
<p>With accelerating environmental change, understanding the influence of forest disturbances and trade-offs between biodiversity and carbon dynamics is of high socio-economic importance. Most studies, however, have assessed immediate or short-term effects of disturbance, while long-term impacts remain poorly understood. Here, using a tree-ring-based approach, we modelled the effect of 250 years of disturbances on present-day biodiversity indicators and carbon dynamics in well-preserved European temperate primary forests. Our results indicated that disturbance legacies spanning centuries shaped contemporary forest co-benefits and trade-offs, with contrasting, local-scale effects. In the short-term, disturbances enhanced carbon sequestration, reaching maximum rates within a comparatively narrow post-disturbance window (up to 50 years). Concurrently, disturbance diminished aboveground carbon storage, which gradually returned to peak levels over centuries. Temporal patterns in biodiversity potential were bimodal; the first maximum coincided with the short-term post-disturbance carbon sequestration peak, and the second occurred during periods of maximum carbon storage in complex old growth. However, despite fluctuating local-scale trade-offs, forest biodiversity and carbon storage remained stable across the broader study region. These findings underscore the dynamic interdependencies of forest processes, and highlight the necessity of large-scale conservation programs to effectively promote both biodiversity and long-term carbon storage, particularly given the accelerating global biodiversity and climate crises.</p>
Figure 47 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figure 47 - Neighbor Joining tree of COI Barcodes based on uncorr-p distances and rooted with Udea ferrugalis. Bootstrap support values derived from 1,000 Bootstrap replicates; scale bar represents 1% uncorr-p Barcode divergence.
Figure 35 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figure 35 - Chaetotaxy map of investigated Leucinodes larvae; blue elements illustrate variation found in Leucinodes orbonalis and Leucinodes africensis; red elements illustrate the differences found in Leucinodes laisalis compared to Leucinodes orbonalis and Leucinodes africensis.
Figures 28-34 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 28-34 - Female genitalia. 28 Leucinodes laisalis, Kenya (prep. RM308), lateral view 29 Leucinodes ethiopica, Ethiopia (BMNH Pyralidae slide 23139), ventral view 30 Leucinodes ugandensis, Somalia (BMNH Pyralidae slide No. 23137), lateral view 31 Leucinodes orbonalis, Thailand (import) (prep. RM642), ventral close-up of antrum region 32 Leucinodes africensis, Côte d'Ivoire (prep. RM743), dorsolateral close-up of antrum region (phase contrast filter) 33 Leucinodes pseudorbonalis, Uganda (prep. RM706), lateral close-up of antrum region 34 Leucinodes kenyensis, Kenya (prep. MN1134), lateral close-up of antrum region. Abbreviations: as antrum sclerotizations; Scale bar in 28–30 represents 500 µm and in 31–34 represents 200 µm.
Figures 23-27 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 23-27 - Female genitalia. 23 Leucinodes orbonalis, Thailand (import) (prep. RM642), ventral view 24 Leucinodes africensis, Ghana (prep. RM640), ventral view 25 Leucinodes rimavallis, Kenya (prep. RM666, SMTD Lep1592), lateral view 26 Leucinodes pseudorbonalis, Uganda (prep. RM706), lateral view 27 Leucinodes kenyensis, Kenya (prep. MN1134), lateral view. Scale bar represents 500 µm.
Figures 1-10 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 1-10 - Adult specimens of Leucinodes. 1 Leucinodes orbonalis, syntype ♂ (Bangladesh) 2 Leucinodes africensis ♀ (Angola) 3 Leucinodes rimavallis ♀ (DR Congo: Kivu) 4 Leucinodes pseudorbonalis ♂ (Uganda) 5 Leucinodes kenyensis, holotype ♂ (Kenya) 6 Leucinodes malawiensis, holotype ♂ (Malawi) 7 Leucinodes laisalis ♀, greyish form (Tanzania) 8 Leucinodes laisalis ♀, brownish form (Tanzania) 9 Leucinodes ethiopica, holotype ♂ (Ethiopia) 10 Leucinodes ugandensis, holotype ♂ (Uganda). Scale bar represents 5 mm.
Figures 13-22 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 13-22 - Male genitalia. 13 Leucinodes orbonalis, Vietnam (prep. RM503) 14 Leucinodes africensis, two-branched sacculus process, Côte d'Ivoire (prep. RM330, phallus omitted) 15 Leucinodes africensis, single-branched sacculus process, Ghana (import) (prep. RM501) 16 Leucinodes rimavallis, Kenya (prep. RM667) 17 Leucinodes pseudorbonalis, Uganda (prep. RM705) 18 Leucinodes kenyensis, Zimbabwe (prep. RM694) 19 Leucinodes malawiensis, Malawi (prep. RM683) 20 Leucinodes laisalis, South Africa (prep. RM504) 21 Leucinodes ethiopica, Ethiopia (BMNH Pyralidae slide 23138) 22 Leucinodes ugandensis, Somalia (BMNH Pyralidae slide 23140); phallus mirrored. Abbreviations: fi fibula, ga granulated area, sa sacculus, sb side branch of sacculus process, sp sacculus process. Scale bar represents 500 µm.
Figures 42-46 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 42-46 - Pupae of Leucinodes. 42–43 Leucinodes africensis 42 dorsal view 43 close-up of cremaster 44–46 Leucinodes laisalis 44 dorsal view 45 lateral view 46 close-up of cremaster. Abbreviations: hs hood-like structures dorsal to spiracles on abdominal segments 2 and 3. Scale bar refers to 42, 44 and 45 and represents 5 mm.
Figures 11-12 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 11-12 - Head profiles of adult Leucinodes orbonalis. 11 male 12 female. Figures at same scale.
Figures 36-41 from: Mally R, Korycinska A, Agassiz DJL, Hall J, Hodgetts J, Nuss M (2015) Discovery of an unknown diversity of Leucinodes species damaging Solanaceae fruits in sub-Saharan Africa and moving in trade (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyraloidea). ZooKeys 472: 117-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.472.8781
Figures 36-41 - Larvae of Leucinodes. 36–37 Leucinodes orbonalis 36 mid instar 37 late instar 38–39 Leucinodes africensis 38 mid instar 39 late instar 40–41 Leucinodes laisalis 40 early instar 41 late instar.
Figure 3 from: Sutton BD, Steck GJ, Norrbom AL, Rodriguez EJ, Srivastava P, Alvarado NN, Colque F, Landa EY, Sánchez JJL, Quisberth E, Peñaranda EA, Clavijo PAR, Alvarez-Baca JK, Zapata TG, Ponce P (2015) Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) variation in the Anastrepha fraterculus cryptic species complex (Diptera, Tephritidae) of the Andean region. In: De Meyer M, Clarke AR, Vera MT, Hendrichs J (Eds) Resolution of Cryptic Species Complexes of Tephritid Pests to Enhance SIT Application and Facilitate International Trade. ZooKeys 540: 175-191. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.540.6147
Figure 3 - Overall similarity inferred by UPGMA (unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) cluster analysis (Sneath and Sokal (1973) of Andean Anastrepha fraterculus ITS1 sequence types (489nt). Distances were computed by the maximum composite likelihood method (Tamura et al. (2004) in number of base substitutions per site with gaps eliminated.
Figure 2 from: Sutton BD, Steck GJ, Norrbom AL, Rodriguez EJ, Srivastava P, Alvarado NN, Colque F, Landa EY, Sánchez JJL, Quisberth E, Peñaranda EA, Clavijo PAR, Alvarez-Baca JK, Zapata TG, Ponce P (2015) Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) variation in the Anastrepha fraterculus cryptic species complex (Diptera, Tephritidae) of the Andean region. In: De Meyer M, Clarke AR, Vera MT, Hendrichs J (Eds) Resolution of Cryptic Species Complexes of Tephritid Pests to Enhance SIT Application and Facilitate International Trade. ZooKeys 540: 175-191. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.540.6147
Figure 2 - ITS1 polymorphic region sequences for Andean Anastrepha fraterculus; hypothetical alignment.
Figure 1 from: Juárez ML, Devescovi F, Břízová R, Bachmann G, Segura DF, Kalinová B, Fernández P, Ruiz MJ, Yang J, Teal PEA, Cáceres C, Vreysen MJB, Hendrichs J, Vera MT (2015) Evaluating mating compatibility within fruit fly cryptic species complexes and the potential role of sex pheromones in pre-mating isolation. In: De Meyer M, Clarke AR, Vera MT, Hendrichs J (Eds) Resolution of Cryptic Species Complexes of Tephritid Pests to Enhance SIT Application and Facilitate International Trade. ZooKeys 540: 125-155. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.540.6133
Figure 1 - Walk-in field cage set up to evaluate female response to male pheromone: a artificial lek hanging from the tree b Anastrepha fraterculus female over an artificial lek.
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