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Fig. 2 in Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the neotropical skipper butterfly Astraptes fulgerator
Fig. 2. Last-instar caterpillars of 10 species in the A. fulgerator complex from the ACG. Interim names reflect the primary larval food plant and, in some cases, a color character of the adult.
Fig. 3 in Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the neotropical skipper butterfly Astraptes fulgerator
Fig. 3. NJ tree based on Kimura-2-Parameter distances for COI DNA sequences from 466 individuals of the A. fulgerator complex from the ACG. Numbers in parentheses indicate the total sample size for each interim taxon, rectangles caricature caterpillar color patterns, and black backgrounds indicate groups of 10 conspecifics with identical sequences.
Fig. 1. Newly eclosed female A in Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the neotropical skipper butterfly Astraptes fulgerator
Fig. 1. Newly eclosed female A. fulgerator (species LOHAMP, voucher code 02-SRNP-9770) from the ACG.
Data from: UV photoreceptors and UV-yellow wing pigments in Heliconius butterflies allow a color signal to serve both mimicry and intraspecific communication
Mimetic wing coloration evolves in butterflies in the context of predator confusion. Unless butterfly eyes have adaptations for discriminating mimetic color variation, mimicry also carries a risk of confusion for the butterflies themselves. Heliconius butterfly eyes, which express recently duplicated UV opsins, have such an adaptation. To examine bird and butterfly color vision as sources of selection on butterfly coloration we studied yellow wing pigmentation in the tribe Heliconiini. We confirmed using reflectance and mass spectrometry that only Heliconius use 3-hydroxy-DL kynurenine (3-OHK) as a wing pigment. 3-OHK looks yellow to humans but it reflects both UV- and long-wavelength light whereas butterflies in related genera have chemically unknown yellow pigments mostly lacking UV-reflectance. Modeling of these color signals reveals that the two UV photoreceptors of Heliconius are better suited to separating 3-OHK from non-3-OHK spectra compared to the photoreceptors of related genera or birds. The co-occurrence of potentially enhanced UV-vision and a UV-reflecting 'yellow' wing pigment could allow unpalatable Heliconius private intraspecific communication in the presence of mimics. Our results are the best available evidence for the correlated evolution of a color signal and color vision. They also suggest that predator visual systems are error-prone in the context of mimicry.
Data from: Serial founder effects and genetic differentiation during worldwide range expansion of monarch butterflies
Range expansions can result in founder effects, increasing genetic differentiation between expanding populations and reducing genetic diversity along the expansion front. However, few studies have addressed these effects in long-distance migratory species, for which high dispersal ability might counter the effects of genetic drift. Monarchs (Danaus plexippus) are best known for undertaking a long-distance annual migration in North America, but have also dispersed around the world to form populations that do not migrate or travel only short distances. Here, we used microsatellite markers to assess genetic differentiation among 18 monarch populations and to determine worldwide colonization routes. Our results indicate that North American monarch populations connected by land show limited differentiation, probably because of the monarch's ability to migrate long distances. Conversely, we found high genetic differentiation between populations separated by large bodies of water. Moreover, we show evidence for serial founder effects across the Pacific, suggesting stepwise dispersal from a North American origin. These findings demonstrate that genetic drift played a major role in shaping allele frequencies and created genetic differentiation among newly formed populations. Thus, range expansion can give rise to genetic differentiation and declines in genetic diversity, even in highly mobile species.
Data from: Balancing ecological costs and benefits of fire for population viability of disturbance-dependent butterflies
Disturbance is a fundamental ecological process and driver of population dynamics. Ecologists seek to understand the effects of disturbance on ecological systems and to use disturbance to modify habitats degraded by anthropogenic change. Demographic responses by plants to disturbance are often well described, but demographic responses by animals are less understood. This limits development of applied strategies that leverage disturbance to augment animal populations. We estimated demographic and behavioural responses of an endangered butterfly, Fender's blue, Plebejus icarioides fenderi, to experimental burning in Oregon, USA. We monitored butterfly vital rates for four years post-fire. Prescribed fire killed Fender's blue larvae. However, fecundity was higher relative to reference/unburned areas for two years after the burn and overwinter larval survivorship was higher for a year after the burn. Fire treatments did not influence adult movement behaviour. We used matrix models to project butterfly population dynamics in fire-driven successional landscapes. We compared optimal burn strategies given targeted burns, such as prescribed fire, to undirected burns, such as wildfires. Disturbance enhances population growth rate under both strategies, and the optimal proportion of landscape burned is similar in both cases. However, targeted burning leads to substantially higher population growth rates. Synthesis and applications. Demographic models allow planning of long-term and large-scale disturbance by balancing initial costs of disturbance with subsequent benefits. We use matrix models to project population growth in fire-driven successional landscapes and contrast prescribed burns with undirected burns (wildfires). We also use these models to evaluate the influence of local vs. non-local dispersal. Because random (non-local) dispersal allows individuals to disperse into areas that were just burned, non-local dispersal always increases population growth rates in this system. This contrasts with source-sink dynamics in stationary environments, in which local dispersal leads to higher population growth rates. Our matrix modelling approach has broad application to other disturbance-dependent taxa surviving in anthropogenically modified landscapes, and could be more widely applied to animal populations.
Data from: Reproductive isolation and patterns of genetic differentiation in a cryptic butterfly species complex
Molecular studies of natural populations are often designed to detect and categorize hidden layers of cryptic diversity, and an emerging pattern suggests that cryptic species are more common and more widely distributed than previously thought. However, these studies are often decoupled from ecological and behavioural studies of species divergence. Thus, the mechanisms by which the cryptic diversity is distributed and maintained across large spatial scales are often unknown. In 1988, it was discovered that the common Eurasian Wood White butterfly consisted of two species (Leptidea sinapis and Leptidea reali), and the pair became an emerging model for the study of speciation and chromosomal evolution. In 2011, the existence of a third cryptic species (Leptidea juvernica) was proposed. This unexpected discovery raises questions about the mechanisms preventing gene flow and about the potential existence of additional species hidden in the complex. Here, we compare patterns of genetic divergence across western Eurasia in an extensive data set of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences with behavioural data on inter- and intraspecific reproductive isolation in courtship experiments. We show that three species exist in accordance with both the phylogenetic and biological species concepts and that additional hidden diversity is unlikely to occur in Europe. The Leptidea species are now the best studied cryptic complex of butterflies in Europe and a promising model system for understanding the formation of cryptic species and the roles of local processes, colonization patterns and heterospecific interactions for ecological and evolutionary divergence.
Data from: Energy and lipid metabolism during direct and diapause development in a pierid butterfly
Diapause is a fundamental component of the life-cycle in the majority of insects living in environments characterized by strong seasonality. The present study addresses poorly understood associations and trade-offs between endogenous diapause duration, thermal sensitivity of development, energetic cost of development and cold tolerance. Diapause intensity, metabolic rate trajectories and lipid profiles of directly developing and diapausing animals were studied using pupae and adults of Pieris napi butterflies from a population for which endogenous diapause is well studied. Endogenous diapause was terminated after 3 months and termination required chilling. Metabolic and postdiapause development rates increased with diapause duration, while the metabolic cost of postdiapause development decreased, indicating that once diapause is terminated development proceeds at a low rate even at low temperature. Diapausing pupae had larger lipid stores than the directly developing pupae and lipids constituted the primary energy source during diapause. However, during diapause lipid stores did not decrease. Thus, despite lipid catabolism meeting the low energy costs of the diapausing pupae, primary lipid store utilization did not occur until the onset of growth and metamorphosis in spring. In line with this finding, diapausing pupae contained low amounts of mitochondria-derived cardiolipins, which suggests a low capacity for fatty acid β-oxidation. While ontogenic development had a large effect on lipid and fatty acid profiles, only small changes in these were seen during diapause. The data therefore indicate that the diapause lipidomic phenotype is built early, when pupae are still at high temperature, and retained until diapause post-diapause development.
Data from: Variation in two phases of post-winter development of a butterfly
The temporal aspects of life cycle characteristics, such as diapause development, are under strong selection in seasonal environments. Fine-tuning of the life cycle may be particularly important to match the phenology of potential mates and resources as well as for optimizing abiotic conditions at eclosion. Here, we experimentally study the spring phenology of the orange tip butterfly, Anthocharis cardamines, by analysing post-winter pupal development in three populations along a latitudinal cline in each of Sweden and the United Kingdom. These countries differ substantially in their seasonal temperature profile. By repeatedly recording pupal weights, we established that post-winter development has two separate phases, with a more rapid weight loss in the second phase than in the first, likely corresponding to a ramping up of the rate of development. Variation in the duration of the first phase contributed more strongly than the second phase to the differences in phenology between the localities and sexes. We found that insects from Sweden had a faster overall rate of development than those from the United Kingdom, which is consistent with countergradient variation, as Sweden is colder during the spring than the United Kingdom. Similar trends were not observed at the within-country scale, however. A cogradient pattern was found within Sweden, with populations from the north developing more slowly, and there was no clear latitudinal trend within the United Kingdom. In all localities, males developed faster than females. Our results point to the importance of variation in the progression of post-winter development for spring phenology.
Data from: Nectar resource limitation affects butterfly flight performance and metabolism differently in intensive and extensive agricultural landscapes
Flight is an essential biological ability of many insects, but is energetically costly. Environments under rapid human-induced change are characterized by habitat fragmentation and may impose constraints on the energy income budget of organisms. This may, in turn, affect locomotor performance and willingness to fly. We tested flight performance and metabolic rates in Meadow brown butterflies (Maniola jurtina) of two contrasted agricultural landscapes: intensively managed, nectar-poor (IL) versus extensively managed, nectar-rich landscapes (EL). Young female adults were submitted to four nectar treatments (i.e. nectar quality and quantity) in outdoor flight cages. IL-individuals had better flight capacities in a flight mill and had lower resting metabolic rates (RMR) than EL-individuals, except under the severest treatment. Under this treatment, RMR increased in IL-individuals, but decreased in EL-individuals; flight performance was maintained by IL-individuals, but dropped by a factor 2.5 in EL-individuals. IL-individuals had more canalized (i.e. less plastic) responses relative to the nectar treatments than EL-individuals. Our results show significant intraspecific variation in the locomotor and metabolic response of a butterfly to different energy income regimes relative to the landscape of origin. Ecophysiological studies help improving our mechanistic understanding of the eco-evolutionary impact of anthropogenic environments on rare and widespread species.
Data from: Intersexual 'arms race' and the evolution of the sphragis in Pteronymia butterflies
Sexual reproduction is often associated with intra- and intersexual conflict, especially in species where females mate multiple times. A strategy that has evolved in males to ensure offspring paternity is the ability to produce a complex, external mating plug called a sphragis. The sphragis has been found in 273 butterfly species; however, little is known about the sphragides of the butterflies in the nymphalid genus Pteronymia. In this study, we describe the sphragides of all sphragis-bearing species in Pteronymia, including the newly discovered sphragides of P. alissa (Hewitson), P. andreas (Weeks), P. ozia (Hewitson), and P. zerlina (Hewitson). Three additional species, P. fulvimargo Butler & Druce, P. oneida (Hewitson), and P. ticida (Hewitson), are found to bear an irregular sphragis-like structure. We use molecular and morphological data from a recent study to construct a phylogeny of species in the genus and examine the number of independent origins of the sphragis. Our ancestral state reconstruction using Bayesian inference suggests that the sphragis evolved three times in Pteronymia, whereas parsimony character optimization performed on a maximum likelihood tree suggests only one origin of this structure. Our data on ancestral state patterns, frequency of incomplete sphragides, and morphology of female external genitalia suggest that sphragis-bearing Pteronymia may be in active intersexual conflict, where females develop strategies to prevent male plugging.
Data from: Barriers to dispersal of rain forest butterflies in tropical agricultural landscapes
Fragmentation of natural habitats can be detrimental for species if individuals fail to cross habitat boundaries to reach new locations, thereby reducing functional connectivity. Connectivity is crucial for species shifting their ranges under climate change, making it important to understand factors that might prevent movement through human-modified landscapes. In tropical regions, rain forests are being fragmented by agricultural expansion, potentially isolating populations of highly diverse forest-dependent species. The likelihood of crossing habitat boundaries is an important determinant of species dispersal through fragmented landscapes, and so we examined movement across rain forest-oil palm plantation boundaries on Borneo by using relatively mobile nymphalid butterflies as our model study taxon. We marked 1666 individuals from 65 species, and 19 percent (100/527) of recaptured individuals crossed the boundary. Boundary crossing was relatively frequent in some species, and net movement of individuals was from forest into plantation. However, boundary crossing from forest into plantation was detected in less than 50 percent (12/28) of recaptured species and was dominated by small-sized butterfly species whose larval host plants occurred within plantations. Thus, while oil palm plantations may be relatively permeable to some species, they may act as barriers to the movement of forest-dependent species (i.e., species that require rain forest habitat to breed), highlighting the importance of maintaining forest connectivity for conserving rain forest species.
Data from: Genome-wide patterns of divergence and gene flow across a butterfly radiation
The Heliconius butterflies are a diverse recent radiation comprising multiple levels of divergence with on-going gene flow between species. The recently sequenced genome of Heliconius melpomene allowed us to investigate the genomic evolution of this group using dense RAD marker sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis of 54 individuals robustly supported reciprocal monophyly of H. melpomene and H. cydno and refuted previous phylogenetic hypotheses that H. melpomene may be paraphylectic with respect to H. cydno. H. timareta also formed a monophyletic clade closely related but distinct from H. cydno with H. heurippa falling within this clade. We find evidence for pervasive gene flow between sympatric populations of the sister clades H. melpomene and H. cydno/timareta, particularly between H. cydno and H. melpomene from Central America and between H. timareta and H. melpomene from the eastern slopes of the Andes. Between races, divergence is primarily explained by isolation-by-distance; and there is little, if any, genetic population structure between parapatric races, suggesting that hybrid zones between races are not zones of secondary contact. Our results support previous findings that colour pattern loci are shared between populations and species with similar colour pattern elements. Further this pattern is almost unique to these genomic regions with only a very small number of other loci showing significant similarity between populations and species with similar colour patterns.
Data from: Heterospecific courtship, minority effects and niche separation between cryptic butterfly species.
Species interacting in varied ecological conditions often evolve in different directions in different local populations. The butterflies of the cryptic Leptidea complex are sympatrically distributed in different combinations across their Eurasian range. Interestingly, the same species is a habitat generalist in some regions and a habitat specialist in others, where a sibling species has the habitat generalist role. Previous studies suggest that this geographically variable niche divergence is generated by local processes in different contact zones. By varying the absolute and relative densities of Leptidea sinapis and Leptidea juvernica in large outdoor cages, we show that female mating success is unaffected by conspecific density, but strongly negatively affected by the density of the other species. Whereas 80% of the females mated when a conspecific couple was alone in a cage, less than 10% mated when the single couple shared the cage with five pairs of the other species. The heterospecific courtships can thus affect the population fitness, and for the species in the local minority, the suitability of a habitat is likely to depend on the presence or absence of the locally interacting species. If the local relative abundance of the different species depends on the colonization order, priority effects might determine the ecological roles of interacting species in this system.
Contribution of genetic versus plastic responses to adaptive patterns in a widespread butterfly along a latitudinal cline
<p>Understanding how organisms adapt to complex environments is a central goal of evolutionary biology and ecology. This issue is of special interest in the current era of rapidly changing climatic conditions. Here, we investigate clinal variation and plastic responses in life history, morphology, and physiology in the butterfly <i>Pieris napi</i> along a pan-European gradient by exposing butterflies raised in captivity to different temperatures. We found clinal variation in body size, growth rates and concomitant development time, wing aspect ratio, wing melanisation, and heat tolerance. Individuals from warmer environments were more heat-tolerant, had less melanised wings and a shorter development but still they were larger than individuals from cooler environments. These findings suggest selection for rapid growth in the warmth and for wing melanisation in the cold, and thus fine-tuned genetic adaptation to local climates. Irrespective of the origin of butterflies, the effects of higher developmental temperature were largely as expected, speeding up development, reducing body size, potential metabolic activity, and wing melanisation, while increasing heat tolerance. At least in part, these patterns likely reflect adaptive phenotypic plasticity. In summary, our study revealed pronounced plastic and genetic responses, which may indicate high adaptive capacities in our study organism. Whether this may help such species though to deal with current climate change needs further investigation, as clinal patterns have typically evolved over long periods.</p>
Data from: Phylogenetics of moth-like butterflies (Papilionoidea: Hedylidae) based on a new 13-locus target capture probe set
The Neotropical moth-like butterflies (Hedylidae) are perhaps the most unusual butterfly family. In addition to being species-poor, this family is predominantly nocturnal and has anti-bat ultrasound hearing organs. Evolutionary relationships among the 36 described species are largely unexplored. A 13-gene anchored hybrid enrichment probe set ('BUTTERFLY2.0'), that includes standard markers used in butterfly phylogenetics, captured sequences from decades-old museum specimens, and appears to be a cost-effective technique to infer phylogenetic relationships of the butterfly tree of life. Our dataset comprises up to 10,898 aligned base pairs from each of the 22 species of Hedylidae and 19 outgroups. Eleven of the thirteen loci were captured from 100% of the taxa, and the remaining loci were captured from ≥94% of taxa. The inferred phylogeny had robust support at 80% of nodes. Our results are consistent with morphological work, with Macrosoma tipulata sister to all remaining hedylids, followed by M. semiermis sister to the remaining species in the genus. We tested the hypothesis that nocturnality evolved only once from diurnality in Hedylidae, and showed that the ancestral condition was likely diurnal, with a shift to nocturnality early in the diversification of this family.
Data from: Pivotal effect of early-winter temperatures and snowfall on population growth of alpine Parnassius smintheus butterflies
Geographic range shifts in species' distributions, due to climate change, imply altered dynamics at both their northern and southern range limits, or at upper and lower elevational limits. There is therefore a need to identify specific weather or climate variable(s), and life stages or cohorts on which they act, and how these affect population growth. Identifying such variables permits prediction of population increase or decline under a changing climate, and shifts in a species' geographic range. For relatively well studied groups, such as butterflies, geographic range shifts are well documented, but weather variables and mechanisms causing those shifts are not well known. The Holarctic butterfly genus Parnassius (Papilionidae) inhabits northern and alpine environments subject to variable and extreme weather. As such, Parnassius species are vulnerable not only to long-term changes in average conditions but especially to short-term extreme weather events. We use population growth estimates for the alpine butterfly, Parnassius smintheus, from 21 populations in the Rocky Mountains of Canada, over a 20-year interval, combined with techniques of machine learning (randomForests) and parametric modeling to identify the important weather variables determining population growth. We do this to determine the seasons and life-stages of P. smintheus most affected by climate change. Extreme minimum and maximum temperatures in November, in combination with November snowfall, affect annual population growth most, more so than do mean temperatures in November, and more so than weather at any other time of year. Populations decline both in years with low extreme minimum temperatures in November, and especially in years with high extreme maximum temperatures in November, indicating that overwintering eggs are particularly vulnerable to early-winter weather. Snowfall ameliorates the negative effects of extreme temperatures, particularly for extreme warm events. Results provide insight into biological mechanisms by which over-wintering eggs might be affected by early winter weather. Short-term extreme weather in November, acting on a single pivotal life-stage (egg) is a far better predictor of population change of alpine Parnassius smintheus butterflies than is the general index of climate, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO).
Data from: Whole genome shotgun phylogenomics resolves the pattern and timing of swallowtail butterfly evolution
Evolutionary relationships have remained unresolved in many well-studied groups, even though advances in next-generation sequencing and analysis, using approaches such as transcriptomics, anchored hybrid enrichment, or ultraconserved elements, have brought systematics to the brink of whole genome phylogenomics. Recently, it has become possible to sequence the entire genomes of numerous non-biological models in parallel at reasonable cost, particularly with shotgun sequencing. Here we identify orthologous coding sequences from whole-genome shotgun sequences, which we then use to investigate the relevance and power of phylogenomic relationship inference and time-calibrated tree estimation. We study an iconic group of butterflies - swallowtails of the family Papilionidae - that has remained phylogenetically unresolved, with continued debate about the timing of their diversification. Low-coverage whole genomes were obtained using Illumina shotgun sequencing for all genera. Genome assembly coupled to BLAST-based orthology searches allowed extraction of 6,621 orthologous protein-coding genes for 45 Papilionidae species and 16 outgroup species (with 32% missing data after cleaning phases). Supermatrix phylogenomic analyses were performed with both maximum-likelihood (IQ-TREE) and Bayesian mixture models (PhyloBayes) for amino acid sequences, which produced a fully resolved phylogeny providing new insights into controversial relationships. Species tree reconstruction from gene trees was performed with ASTRAL and SuperTriplets and recovered the same phylogeny. We estimated gene site concordant factors to complement traditional node-support measures, which strengthens the robustness of inferred phylogenies. Bayesian estimates of divergence times based on a reduced dataset (760 orthologs and 12% missing data) indicate a mid-Cretaceous origin of Papilionoidea around 99.2 million years ago (Ma) (95% credibility interval: 68.6-142.7 Ma) and Papilionidae around 71.4 Ma (49.8-103.6 Ma), with subsequent diversification of modern lineages well after the Cretaceous-Paleogene event. These results show that shotgun sequencing of whole genomes, even when highly fragmented, represents a powerful approach to phylogenomics and molecular dating in a group that has previously been refractory to resolution.
Data from: Sensory limitations and the maintenance of color polymorphisms: viewing the 'alba' female polymorphism through the visual system of male Colias butterflies
Although color polymorphisms are a widespread and conspicuous component of extant biodiversity, the selective pressures that act to maintain multiple morphs within populations remain poorly understood in most cases. In particular, the role that visual system limitations may play in maintaining multiple color morphs is not well explored. We used a female-limited color polymorphism common to the butterfly genus Colias, called the 'alba' polymorphism, to investigate the hypotheses that mate-searching males may struggle to discriminate pale 'alba' females from co-occurring heterospecific white butterflies and/or heterospecific 'alba' females, or that 'alba' females may be more difficult to detect than non-'alba' females in natural scenes. Such perceptual limitations may influence the relative mating rates of 'alba' versus non-'alba' females, contributing to the evolutionary persistence of both morphs. Based on receptor-noise-limited modeling of the male Colias visual system, we find that 'alba' females exhibit chromatic and luminance contrasts against background foliage that are most similar to the 'alba' females of other co-occurring Colias species and females of the co-occurring white butterfly Pieris rapae. When compared to other co-flying butterflies including non-'alba' females, 'alba' females are consistently lower in chromatic contrast against background, but higher in luminance contrast. When viewed side-by-side, we estimate that male Colias should be able to discriminate 'alba' females from other co-occurring heterospecific butterflies, including heterospecific 'albas'. However, under field conditions that involve larger distances in space or time, males are likely to face challenges discriminating between conspecific 'alba' females and co-occurring heterospecific white butterflies, particularly heterospecific 'alba' females. Our results suggest that constraints arising from male visual function may be involved in the maintenance of this color polymorphism, particularly in populations that co-occur with other 'alba'-polymorphic Colias species. We argue that such visual system constraints may play a larger role in the maintenance of color polymorphism than has been empirically appreciated to date.
Data from: Long-term demographic surveys reveal a consistent relationship between average occupancy and abundance within local populations of a butterfly metapopulation
<p>Species distribution models are the tool of choice for large-scale population monitoring, environmental association studies, and predictions of range shifts under future environmental conditions. Available data and familiarity of the tools rather than the underlying population dynamics often dictate the choice of specific method — especially for the case of presence–absence data. Yet, for predictive purposes, the relationship between occupancy and abundance embodied in the models should reflect the actual population dynamics of the modelled species. To understand the relationship of occupancy and abundance in a heterogeneous landscape at the scale of local populations, we built a spatio-temporal regression model of populations of the Glanville fritillary butterfly (Melitaea cinxia) in a Baltic Sea archipelago. Our data comprised nineteen years of habitat surveys and snapshot data of land use in the region. We used variance partitioning to quantify relative contributions of land use, habitat quality, and metapopulation covariates. The model revealed a consistent and positive, but noisy relationship between average occupancy and mean abundance in local populations. Patterns of abundance were highly variable across years, with large uncorrelated random variation and strong local population stochasticity. In contrast, the spatio-temporal random effect, habitat quality, population connectivity, and patch size explained variation in occupancy, vindicating metapopulation theory as the basis for modelling occupancy patterns in fragmented landscapes. Previous abundance was an important predictor in the occupancy model, which points to a spillover of abundance into occupancy dynamics. While occupancy models can successfully model large-scale population structure and average occupancy, extinction probability estimates for local populations derived from occupancy-only models are overconfident, as extinction risk is dependent on actual, not average, abundance.</p>
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Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
DANDI is a BRAIN Initiative archive for publishing and sharing neurophysiology data, including electrophysiology, optophysiology, and behavioral data packaged as NWB and related standards.
International Brain Laboratory public data
The International Brain Laboratory public data releases expose standardized mouse decision-making experiments, including Neuropixels recordings, widefield calcium imaging, behavior, and session metadata accessed through the ONE API.
OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.