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Functional beta diversity of New Zealand fishes: characterising morphological turnover along depth and latitude gradients, with derivation of functional bioregions
<p>Changes in the functional structures of communities are rarely examined along multiple large-scale environmental gradients. Here, we describe patterns in functional beta diversity for New Zealand marine fishes <i>vs</i> depth and latitude, including broad-scale delineation of functional bioregions. We derived eight functional traits related to food acquisition and locomotion and calculated complementary indices of functional beta diversity for 144 species of marine ray-finned fishes occurring along large-scale depth (50 - 1200 m) and latitudinal gradients (29° - 51° S) in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone. We focused on a suite of morphological traits calculated directly from <i>in situ</i> Baited Remote Underwater Stereo-Video (stereo-BRUV) footage and museum specimens. We found that functional changes were primarily structured by depth followed by latitude, and that latitudinal functional turnover decreased with increasing depth. Functional turnover among cells increased with increasing depth distance, but this relationship plateaued for greater depth distances (> 750 m). In contrast, functional turnover did not change significantly with increasing latitudinal distance at 700 - 1200 m depths. Shallow functional bioregions (50 - 100 m) were distinct at different latitudes, whereas deeper bioregions extended across broad latitudinal ranges. Fishes in shallow depths had a body shape conducive to efficient propulsion, while fishes in deeper depths were more elongated, enabling slow, energy-efficient locomotion, and had large eyes to enhance vision. Environmental filtering may be a primary driver of broad-scale patterns of functional beta diversity in the deep sea. Greater environmental homogeneity may lead to greater functional homogeneity across latitudinal gradients at deeper depths (700 - 1200 m). We suggest that communities living at depth may follow a 'functional village hypothesis', whereby similar key functional niches in fish communities may be maintained over large spatial scales.</p>
FIG. 6 in Middle Devonian Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus, 1771) (Anthozoa, Rugosa) from Moravia (Czech Republic): aspects of functional morphology, gerontic growth patterns, and epibionts
FIG. 6. — Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus, 1771), all specimens are whitened with ammonium chloride prior the photographing except the thin sections; A, B, specimen ICh 3483, Chlupáč collection, Czech Geological Survey, Eifelian, Petrovice, latex cast; A, calicinal view; B, "ventral" view; C-E, three specimens ICh 3482 A-C, same collection and locality, steinkerns of opercula; F-I, specimen 29, Strnad collection, Silesian Museum Opava (figured in Strnad 1960: figs 1, 2); Eifelian, Horní Benešov; F, "dorsal" view; G, "ventral" view; H, lateral view; I, calicinal view; J, specimen 2/13 (13SL), Givetian, Čelechovice, SL, adult specimen with operculum in situ; K; specimen 107, unknown locality in Čelechovice (Givetian), juvenile operculum; L-N, specimen AG 932 A-C, coll. Galle, Geological Institute Academy of Science, unknown locality in Čelechovice (Givetian); L, transverse section nearer to calice; M, transverse section nearer to apex, senile closing of the calice is visible; N, longitudinal section through counter-cardinal plane; free spaces under the tabulae or tabellae; O, specimen AG 1436 C, coll. Galle, Geological Institute Academy of Science (figured in Galle 1995: pl. 4, figs 1-3); Borehole KDH-9, vicinity of Konice, close to Eifelian/Givetian boundary; transverse section through deformed specimen. Abbreviations: RL, Růžičkův lom Quarry; SL, Státní lom Quarry. Photos by Mrs. Hana Vršt'alová, thin sections by Mrs. Dana Hejdová (Central Geological Survey, Prague). Scale bars: A-J, L-O, 10 mm; K, 1 mm.
FIG. 2 in Middle Devonian Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus, 1771) (Anthozoa, Rugosa) from Moravia (Czech Republic): aspects of functional morphology, gerontic growth patterns, and epibionts
FIG. 2. — Corallite growth of adult (15SL, 19SL, 9SL, 17SL) and gerontic (1RL, 2RL, 5RL, 16SL) specimens expressed as L/W ratio (L and W in mm), Čelechovice, note width decrease on the curve of the specimen 15SL (= rejuvenation, see Fig. 5E-H). For further explanations see Fig. 1. Abbreviations: RL, Růžičkův lom Quarry; SL, Státní lom Quarry.
FIG. 1 in Middle Devonian Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus, 1771) (Anthozoa, Rugosa) from Moravia (Czech Republic): aspects of functional morphology, gerontic growth patterns, and epibionts
FIG. 1. — Corallite growth of juvenile specimens (20, 21, 24, 28, 103SL) expressed as L/W ratio (L and W in mm), Čelechovice, measurements begin 1 mm after the preserved apex of the corallite; this caused the beginnings of respective lines at various widths. Abbreviation: SL, Státní lom Quarry.
FIG. 3 in Middle Devonian Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus, 1771) (Anthozoa, Rugosa) from Moravia (Czech Republic): aspects of functional morphology, gerontic growth patterns, and epibionts
FIG. 3. — Freeing of Calceola out of the sediment; A, coral deep in sediment; B, center of gravity shifts forward and calice moves downward by opening the operculum, apex moves upward and sediment particles pour under apical part; C, operculum close, center of gravity shifts backward, calice moves upward and sediment particles pour under calicinal part. Animal moved upward.
Figure 9 in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 9. Character state distribution of podocopids on a phylogenetic tree proposed by Yamaguchi (2003). The families not shown in bold face were not examined in this study, and estimations of their eye types were mainly based on the figures and descriptions of the cuticular lens by Benson et al. (1961) and Van Morkhoven (1963).
Figure 7. A in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 7. A, measurements of the four types of podocopid species (LG1, LG2, MG, and HG) plotted on Figure 6. B, theoretical models of possible podocopid ostracod eyes accommodated in the morphospace.
Figure 4. The setting for the phototactic experiments. A in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 4. The setting for the phototactic experiments. A white fibre-optic illumination (150 W) from a halogen lamp was exposed to the podocopid ostracod at the distance of D and an angle of 45°.
Figure 3. A in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 3. A, cuticular lens–tapetum model: bold dots in the lens represent the centre of the arc described by the outer and inner surface of the lens; r1, the radius of curvature of the outer lens surface; r2, the radius of curvature of the inner surface; e1, the thickness of the lens; e2, the distance between the lens and the tapetum; d, the diameter of a spherical mirror. B, an example of the computer simulation of ray tracing: Lt, the sum of the total lengths of segments of rays passing through the rhabdom (shown by the grey segments); n, the total number of rays of incident light.
Figure 2 in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 2. Idealized cross-sections showing the two possible ultrastructures of the podocopid lateral ocellus viewed from the anterior side. A, the pigment cup connects with the cuticular lens by connective tissue. B, the pigment cup is buried in the calcified valve, and the lens cell is degenerate.
Figure 1. The podocopid ostracod Aurila kiritsubo Yajima, 1982 in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 1. The podocopid ostracod Aurila kiritsubo Yajima, 1982; the right valve with a close-up of the cuticular lens. Scale bar = 100 µm.
Figure 8 in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 8. The relationship between the total irradiance of the microhabitat (%) of each species (where the total irradiance at the sea surface is 100%) and the light-gathering ability of eyes (G).
Figure 11. A in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 11. A, the relationship between the relative valve thickness (Tv) and the relative thickness of the lens (E1): r, correlation coefficient; P, significance level of the correlation. B, plots of the standardized curvature of the outer lens surface (R1) against the relative height of the ridge (Hr).
Figure 5 in Functional morphology and light-gathering ability of podocopid ostracod eyes and the palaeontological implications
Figure 5. Nine selected three-dimensional contour diagrams showing the theoretical morphospace consisting of parameters R1, R2, and G. The z-axis represents the G value corresponding to each combination of R1 and R2, for E1 = 2.0, 1.0, and 0.05, and E2 = 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9. Selected theoretical models are given for the corresponding regions in the morphospace.
Figure 11 in Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite
Figure 11. Comparative views of the skull and mandible of (A) Neofelis nebulosa, and (B) Paramachairodus ogygia (artwork by M. Antón).
Figure 10 in Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite
Figure 10. Photographs of the first to seventh cervical vertebrae (C1-C7) (anterior to left) in Fig. 9, in lateral view. A, Paramachairodus ogygia from Batallones-1. B, Panthera pardus.
Figure 1 in Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite
Figure 1. Left mastoid morphology of some species of Felidae showing the different development of the mastoid process (m.p.) and paraoccipital process (p.p.). A, Panthera leo. B, Paramachairodus ogygia from Batallones-1, B-1377. C, Smilodon fatalis from Rancho La Brea. D, B-1377, skull of P. ogygia from Batallones-1 in left lateral view with mastoid area circled.
Figure 4 in Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite
Figure 4. Left hemimandibles of Felidae showing differences in the development of the mandibular coronoid process. A, Panthera leo. B, Paramachairodus ogygia from Batallones-1. C, Smilodon fatalis from Rancho La Brea.
Figure 5 in Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite
Figure 5. Comparative views of the skull and mandible of two Smilodontini species. A, Paramachairodus ogygia. B, Megantereon cultridens (artwork by M. Antón).
Figure 8 in Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite
Figure 8. Composite reconstruction of the skull, mandible and cervical vertebrae of Paramachairodus ogygia, based on material of several individuals from Batallones-1, showing the inferred position of the main cranio-cervical muscles relevant to the canine shear-bite (artwork by M. Antón).
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