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New giant carnivorous dinosaur reveals convergent evolutionary trends in theropod arm reduction
<p>Giant carnivorous dinosaurs such as <em>Tyrannosaurus rex</em> and abelisaurids are characterized by highly reduced forelimbs that stand in contrast to their huge dimensions, massive skulls, and obligate bipedalism. Another group that follows this pattern, yet is still poorly known, is the Carcharodontosauridae: dominant predators that inhabited most continents during the Early Cretaceous and reached their largest sizes in Aptian-Cenomanian times. Despite many discoveries over the last three decades, aspects of their anatomy, especially with regard to the skull, forearm, and feet, remain poorly known. Here we report a new carcharodontosaurid, <em>Meraxes gigas</em>, gen. et sp. nov., based on a specimen recovered from the Upper Cretaceous Huincul Formation of northern Patagonia, Argentina. Phylogenetic analysis places <em>Meraxes</em> among derived Carcharodontosauridae, in a clade with other massive South American species. <em>Meraxes</em> preserves novel anatomical information for derived carcharodontosaurids, including an almost complete forelimb that provides evidence for convergent allometric trends in forelimb reduction among three lineages of large-bodied, megapredatory non-avian theropods, including a remarkable degree of parallelism between the latest-diverging tyrannosaurids and carcharodontosaurids. This trend, coupled with a likely lower bound on forelimb reduction, hypothesized to be about 0.4 forelimb/femur length, combined to produce this short-armed pattern in theropods. The almost complete cranium of <em>Meraxes</em> permits new estimates of skull length in <em>Giganotosaurus</em>, which is among the longest for theropods. <em>Meraxes</em> also provides further evidence that carchardontosaurids reached peak diversity shortly before their extinction with high rates of trait evolution in facial ornamentation possibly linked to a social signaling role.</p>
Fig. 1 in Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs
Fig. 1. Rough outline showing scale of size of Tyrannosaurus rex. By W. D. M. The association of the small forearm is probably incorrect.
Fig. 2 in Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs
Fig. 2. Inner surface of the left lower jaw of the type specimen of Dynamosaurus imperiosus. 1/8 nat. size.
Figure 2 in A Partial Skeleton of the Tyrannosaurid Dinosaur Aublysodon from the Upper Cretaceous of New Mexico
Figure 2—Aublysodon cf. A. mirandus (OMNH 10131). Frontal-parietal mass in 1, dorsal view, and 2, right lateral view; left postorbital in 3, medial view, and 4, lateral view; left dentary in 5, medial view, and 6, lateral view. Abbreviations: cl, cleft in frontal; fr, frontal and suture for frontal; j, suture for jugal; lsp, suture for laterosphenoid; p, parietal; po, suture for postorbital; sq, broken squamosal process. Scale bar 10 cm.
Figure 3 in A Partial Skeleton of the Tyrannosaurid Dinosaur Aublysodon from the Upper Cretaceous of New Mexico
Figure 3—Comparison of tyrannosaurid frontal bones in dorsal view. 1, Aublysodon mirandus (LACM 28471). 2, cf. Aublysodon sp. (TMP 80.16.485). 3, Aublysodon cf. A. mirandus (OMNH 10131). 4, Nanotyrannus lancensis (CMNH 5741). 5, Albertosaurus libratus (AMNH 5664). 6, Albertosaurus libratus (USNM 12814). 7, Daspletosaurus torosus (NMC 8506). Sutures for adjacent bones are shown: f, frontal; fn, notch in frontal (also indicated by arrow); 1, lacrimal; n, nasal; p, parietal; pf, prefrontal; po, postorbital; stf, border of supratemporal fenestra. Scale bar 10 cm. 1 and 5 are adapted from Molnar (1978), 2 from Currie (1987), 4 from Bakker et al. (1988), 6 and 7 from Russell (1970).
Albertosaurus libratus adult and youngster? Or two species? Drawn to the same scale, note that the smaller individual's teeth, which are partly covered by the lips, are absolutely larger than the bigger one's. On the side of the lower jaw, the bulge of the surangular bone typical of tyrannosaurs can clearly be seen. in Predatory Dinosaurs of the World
Albertosaurus libratus adult and youngster? Or two species? Drawn to the same scale, note that the smaller individual's teeth, which are partly covered by the lips, are absolutely larger than the bigger one's. On the side of the lower jaw, the bulge of the surangular bone typical of tyrannosaurs can clearly be seen.
FIGURE 14 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 14. Time-calibrated Bayesian MCC tree, showing character state changes for osteological correlates of quadrupedality. Light red, femur longer than tibia; yellow, proximal ulnar flange present; green, tab-shaped fourth trochanter; blue, rounded manual unguals. Note that some posterior probabilities and labels for Ankylopollexia and Styracosterna have been removed for clarity; the groups are still indicated by closed circles at their respective nodes.
FIGURE 10 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 10. Strict consensus of 3,086 MPTs produced from a parsimony analysis excluding the 80 novel postcranial characters used in this analysis. Styracosterna is composed of a large polytomy, and smaller polytomies are found outside Rhabdodontoidea and Thescelosauridae.
FIGURE 11 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 11. Silhouettes showing the radius, ulna and manus of A, Iguanodon (from RBINS 1534 and 1558) and B, Lurdusaurus (from MNHN.F.GDF 1700).
FIGURE 13 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 13. Dentary teeth in labial view of A, Thescelosaurus infernalis (SDSM 7210); B, Rhabdodon (MC.CY.QR1); C, Tenontosaurus tilletti (AMNH 3034); and D, Owenodon (NHMUK R2998). Abbreviations: c, cingulum; pr, primary ridge; sr, secondary ridge. Scale bars equal 5 mm.
FIGURE 8 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 8. Maximum Clade Credibility tree produced by Bayesian analysis. Posterior probabilities are shown to the left of their nodes. The geologic timescale is shown across the top. Tips represent the average age found for each OTU across all sampled trees.
FIGURE 7 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 7. Time scaled parsimony tree, showing assigned age ranges and broad-scale geographic data. Jackknife values above 20 (with 10% chance of character removal) are shown above and to the left of their respective nodes. Bremer supports above one are shown below and to the left of their respective nodes, and bolded.
FIGURE 12 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 12. Sternals of A, Tenontosaurus (YPM 5456); B, the Kirkwood taxon (AM 6067); C, Macrogryphosaurus (MUCPv 321); D, Hypselospinus (NHMUK R1885). A and B are right sternals in ventrolateral view, C and D are coosified left and right sternals, C in caudodorsal view and D in cranioventral view, including the midline intersternal ossification. Abbreviations: cl, caudolateral process; cm, caudomedial process; iso, intersternal ossification. Scale bar equals 10 cm in A, C, and D, and 1 cm in B.
FIGURE 9 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 9. Ancestral Area Reconstruction on MCC tree from Bayesian analysis. Squares at tips show taxon ranges, pie charts at nodes show likelihoods of ancestral ranges. Key shows colors corresponding to modern continents; blended colors (e.g., the orange wedge in the node leading to Leaellynasaura and Gasparinisaura) indicate an ancestral range in both descendant ranges.
FIGURE 6 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 6. Parsimony (left) and Bayesian (right) trees plotted together. Strict consensus of 84 MPTs after pruning Oryctodromeus, Atlascopscosaurus, Planicoxa, Cumnoria, Cedrorestes, and NHMUK R28860. Jackknife values above 20 (with 10% chance of character removal) are shown above and to the left of their respective nodes. Bremer supports above one are shown below and to the left of their respective nodes, and bolded. CI=0.272, RI=0.634. Maximum clade credibility tree produced by Bayesian analysis showing posterior probabilities below and to the right of their respective node.
FIGURE 5 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 5. Phylogeny of Boyd (2012), cropped to relevant portion with collapsed clades. Note that Thescelosauridae, composed of many taxa previously regarded as basally branching ornithopods, lies outside of both Ornithopoda and Cerapoda. Strict consensus of 36 MPTs.
FIGURE 3 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 3. Iguanodontian phylogeny as presented by McDonald (2012a). This is an Adam's consensus tree of 24,460 MPTs, with terminology for higher taxa following Sereno (2005).
FIGURE 2 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 2. Early cladistic analyses of ornithischian phylogeny found by (A) Norman, 1984, and (B) Sereno, 1984. H1 and H2 indicate alternate positions for Heterodontosauridae, and P1 and P2 indicate alternate positions for Pachycephalosauridae.
FIGURE 1 in Phylogeny of iguanodontian dinosaurs and the evolution of quadrupedality
FIGURE 1. Simplified phylogeny showing the current understanding of ornithischian relationships, based on Butler et al. (2008). Silhouettes from Phylopic.org. Daspletosaurus by Tasman Dixon, Brachiosaurus by Michael P. Taylor, Lambeosaurus by Craig Dylke (all public domain). Triceratops by Raven Amos, Heterodontosaurus by Jaime Headden, Stegosaurus by Andrew A. Farke, Hypsilophodon by Mathew Wedel (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Stegoceras by Caleb M. Brown (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/).
FIGURE 8. Molfetta dinosaur tracks, photogrammetry derived 3D in The use of aerial and close-range photogrammetry in the study of dinosaur tracksites: Lower Cretaceous (upper Aptian/lower Albian) Molfetta ichnosite (Apulia, southern Italy)
FIGURE 8. Molfetta dinosaur tracks, photogrammetry derived 3D models and interpretations; 1-2, DEM and contour line map of a theropod footprint (contour lines have an interval of 0.2 cm); 4-5, DEM and contour line map of an ornitischian footprint; 3 and 6, interpretative outline drawings of the studied tracks.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
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International Brain Laboratory public data
The International Brain Laboratory public data releases expose standardized mouse decision-making experiments, including Neuropixels recordings, widefield calcium imaging, behavior, and session metadata accessed through the ONE API.
OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.