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Fig. 1 in Ecomorphological patterns of the fish assemblage in a tropical floodplain: effects of trophic, spatial and phylogenetic structures

Fig. 1. Study area with sampling stations in the upper Paraná River floodplain: rivers: Paraná (1), Baía (2) and Ivinheima (3); channels: Cortado (4), Curutuba (5) and Ipoitã (6); connected lagoons: Garças (7), Guaraná (8) and Finado Raimundo (9); disconnected lagoons: Fechada (10), Ventura (11) and Zé do Paco (12).

Fig. 12 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 12. Projection of the 15 studied species in the two first axes of the PCA; squares represent the nektonic species; circles the benthic and the triangles the nektobenthic.

Fig. 3 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 3. Representative specimens of the collected species: a) H. malabaricus (LIRP 3077; 101.8 mm SL); b) A. paranae (LIRP 3093; 47.4 mm SL); c) A. fasciatus (LIRP 3161; 48.3 mm SL); d) B. stramineus (LIRP 3157; 45.3 mm SL); e) P. argentea (LIRP 3121; 55.2 mm SL); f) C. gomesi (LIRP 3138; 32.1 mm SL); g) C. iheringi (LIRP 3127; 36.0 mm SL); h) R. quelen (LIRP 3151; 88.9 mm SL); i) P. tenebrosa (LIRP 3160; 37.3 mm SL); j) C. difluviatilis (LIRP 3056; 44.0 mm SL); l) H. ancistroides (LIRP 3122; 37.4 mm SL); m) Hisonotus sp. (LIRP 3092; 30.4 mm SL); n) E. virescens (LIRP 3080; 119.8 mm SL); o) P. jucundus (LIRP 3063; 19.8 mm SL) and p) S. marmoratus (LIRP 3097; 137.1 mm SL).

Fig. 2 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 2. General view of the three studied stretches in the Paulicéia stream, Mogi-Guaçu River basin; a) upper stretch, b) middle stretch and c) lower stretch.

Fig. 6 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 6. Frequency of the reproductive stages found in each month to A. paranae in the Paulicéia stream.

Fig. 1 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 1. Location of the study area in the Paulicéia stream, Mogi-Guaçu River basin, State of São Paulo, Brazil; upper (21º38'45.8"S 47º38'06"W), middle (21º39'23"S 47º38'34"W) and lower (21º40'58.1"S 47º39'26.3"W) stretches.

Fig. 4 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 4. Percent composition of the gut contents of the fish species with the food items grouped in the following broad categories: the autochthonous - Al = algae, An = anelideos, Mi = micro-crustaceans, Te = thecamoebas, Fi = fishes and fish scales, Ai = aquatic insects; and the allochthonous - Ti = terrestrial insects, Ar = Arachnidae, Om = organic matter and Vp = debris of vascular plants.

Fig. 9 in Biology and ecomorphology of stream fishes from the rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, Southeastern Brazil

Fig. 9. Sexual proportion of males and females of Hisonotus sp. for each size intervals of the standard length.

Fig. 8 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 8. Cladogram of traditionally accepted phylogenetic relationships among Loricariidae subfamilies (modified from de Pinna, 1988: 304), showing the phylogenetic position of the studied loricariid species, an example of ecomorphological adaptive divergence in the studied riffles. According to Armbruster (2004), Ancistrinae is currently considered a distinct tribe within Hypostominae.

Fig. 7 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 7. Imparfinis minutus specimen sheltering itself from current among rocks in the riffles bottom, during daytime (photo: Ricardo M.C. Castro).

Fig. 5 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 5. Characidium zebra specimen using its expanded and horizontally orientated paired fins to hold its position against the current in the riffles substrate, during daytime (photo: Ricardo M.C. Castro).

Fig. 4 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 4. Cladogram of phylogenetic relationships among selected characiform fishes (modified from Buckup, 1998: 134), showing the phylogenetic position of the studied Characidiinae and Parodontidae species, an example of ecomorphological adaptive convergence in the studied riffles.

Fig. 3 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 3. Dendrogram of ecomorphological relationships of the 14 resident fish species in the upper rio São Francisco studied riffles, southeastern Brazil.

Fig. 2 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 2. Projection of the two first principal components of the 14 resident fish species in the upper rio São Francisco studied riffles, southeastern Brazil: Astriv, Astyanax rivularis; Brystr, Bryconamericus stramineus; Brysp, Bryconamericus sp.; Chafas, Characidium fasciatum; Chazeb, Characidium zebra; Apaibi, Apareiodon ibitiensis; Parhil, Parodon hilarii; Cetihe, Cetopsorhamdia iheringi; Impmin, Imparfinis minutus; Rhaque, Rhamdia quelen; Trisp, Trichomycterus sp.; Hissp, Hisonotus sp.; Hypgar, Hypostomus garmani; Harsp, Harttia sp.

Fig. 1 in Testing the ecomorphological hypothesis in a headwater riffles fish assemblage of the rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil

Fig. 1. General view of the studied riffle stretch (20º30'S 46º50'W) in the upper rio São Francisco, southeastern Brazil (photo: Ricardo M.C. Castro).

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Fig. 3. a in Diet and trophic ecomorphology of the silverside, Odontesthes bonariensis, of the Salto Caxias reservoir, rio Iguaçu, Paraná, Brazil

Fig. 3. a) Position and form of the mouth of O. bonariensis; b) left gill rackers; c) digestive tract.

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Fig. 2 in Diet and trophic ecomorphology of the silverside, Odontesthes bonariensis, of the Salto Caxias reservoir, rio Iguaçu, Paraná, Brazil

Fig. 2. Proportion of the food items in the diet of the O. bonariensis representing by Costello's method.

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Fig. 4 in Diet and trophic ecomorphology of the silverside, Odontesthes bonariensis, of the Salto Caxias reservoir, rio Iguaçu, Paraná, Brazil

Fig. 4. Odontesthes bonariensis numerical abundance (CPUE), before and after the Salto Caxias damming.

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What you sample is what you get: ecomorphological variation in Trithemis (Odonata, Libellulidae) dragonfly wings reconsidered

Abstract Background The phylogenetic ecology of the Afro-Asian dragonfly genus Trithemis has been investigated previously by Damm et al. (in Mol Phylogenet Evol 54:870–882, 2010) and wing ecomorphology by Outomuro et al. (in J Evol Biol 26:1866–1874, 2013). However, the latter investigation employed a somewhat coarse sampling of forewing and hindwing outlines and reported results that were at odds in some ways with expectations given the mapping of landscape and water-body preference over the Trithemis cladogram produced by Damm et al. (in Mol Phylogenet Evol 54:870–882, 2010). To further explore the link between species-specific wing shape variation and habitat we studied a new sample of 27 Trithemis species employing a more robust statistical test for phylogenetic covariation, more comprehensive representations of Trithemis wing morphology and a wider range of morphometric data-analysis procedures. Results Contrary to the Outomuro et al. (in J Evol Biol 26:1866–1874, 2013) report, our results indicate that no statistically significant pattern of phylogenetic covariation exists in our Trithemis forewing and hindwing data and that both male and female wing datasets exhibit substantial shape differences between species that inhabit open and forested landscapes and species that hunt over temporary/standing or running water bodies. Among the morphometric analyses performed, landmark data and geometric morphometric data-analysis methods yielded the worst performance in identifying ecomorphometric shape distinctions between Trithemis habitat guilds. Direct analysis of wing images using an embedded convolution (deep learning) neural network delivered the best performance. Bootstrap and jackknife tests of group separations and discriminant-function stability confirm that our results are not artifacts of overtrained discriminant systems or the "curse of dimensionality" despite the modest size of our sample. Conclusion Our results suggest that Trithemis wing morphology reflects the environment's "push" to a much greater extent than phylogeny's "pull". In addition, they indicate that close attention should be paid to the manner in which morphologies are sampled for morphometric analysis and, if no prior information is available to guide sampling strategy, the sample that most comprehensively represents the morphologies of interest should be obtained. In many cases this will be digital images (2D) or scans (3D) of the entire morphology or morphological feature rather than sparse sets of landmark/semilandmark point locations.

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