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341 results for “oviposition”
Quantifying species traits related to oviposition behavior and offspring survival in two important disease vectors
<p>Animals with complex life cycles have traits related to oviposition and juvenile survival that can respond to environmental factors in similar or dissimilar ways. We examined the preference-performance hypothesis (PPH), which states that females lacking parental care select juvenile habitats that maximize fitness, for two ubiquitous mosquito species, <i>Aedes albopictus</i> and <i>Culex quinquefasciatus</i>. Specifically, we examined if environmental factors known to affect larval abundance patterns in the field played a role in the PPH for these species. We first identified important environmental factors from a field survey that predicted larvae across different spatial scales. We then performed two experiments, the first testing the independent responses of oviposition and larval survival to these environmental factors, followed by a combined experiment where initial oviposition decisions were allowed to affect larval life history measures. We used path analysis for this last experiment to determine important links among factors in explaining egg numbers, larval mass, development time, and survival. For separate trials, <i>Aedes albopictus</i> displayed congruence between oviposition and larval survival, however <i>C. quinquefasciatus</i> did not. For the combined experiment path analysis suggested neither species completely fit predictions of the PPH, with density dependent effects of initial egg number on juvenile performance in <i>A. albopictus</i>. For these species the consequences of female oviposition choices on larval performance do not appear to fit expectations of the PPH. </p>
Female fiddler crabs, Austruca lactea (Decapoda: Ocypodidae), adjust their rate of mate sampling based on remaining days until oviposition under a size-dependent temperature constraint
<p>The rate of mate sampling is one of the critical components associated with the sampling costs in female mate choice. In ectotherms, environmental temperature generally constrains locomotion performance. In addition, females will adjust the mate sampling rate depending on their breeding schedule because of the risk of remaining unfertilized eggs or a loss of benefits related to mating, if they lost the opportunity to copulate. This study investigated how these effects influence the rate of female mate sampling in the temperate fiddler crab (<em>Austruca lactea</em>) in the field. The number of sampled males per searching duration formed a convex curve against environmental temperature. The optimal environmental temperature increased with the female body size. These results suggest that the mate sampling rate would be under a size-dependent temperature constraint, and sampling costs would be lower for larger females than smaller individuals under high-temperature conditions. Furthermore, when there were fewer remaining days, the mate sampling rate increased. Females would hasten the sampling rate to ensure a suitable burrow for breeding. Mate sampling rate in female A. lactea is therefore associated with environmental temperature, female body size, and remaining days until oviposition.</p>
On the use of private versus social information in oviposition site choice decisions by Drosophila melanogaster females
<p>Individuals are faced with decisions throughout their lifetimes, and the choices they make often have important consequences towards their fitness. Being able to discern which available option is best to pursue often incurs sampling costs, which may be largely avoided by copying the behaviour and decisions of others. Although social learning and copying behaviours are widespread, much remains unknown about how effective and adaptive copying behaviour is, as well as the factors that underlie its expression. Recently, it has been suggested that since female fruit flies (<i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>) appear to rely heavily on public information when selecting oviposition sites, they are a promising model system for researching patch-choice copying, and more generally, the mechanisms that control decision-making. Here, we set out to determine how well female distinguish between socially-produced cues, and whether females are using 'relevant' signals when choosing an oviposition site. We found that females showed a strong preference for ovipositing on media patches that had been previously occupied by ovipositing females of the same species and diet over other female outgroups. However, in a separate assay, we observed that females favoured ovipositing on media patches that previously housed virgin males over those exhibiting alternative conspecific signals. Our results confirm that females use cues left behind by other flies when choosing between potential oviposition sites, though their prioritization of these signals raises serious questions as to whether fruit flies are employing copying behaviour, or are instead responding to signals that may not be of relevance to oviposition site suitability.</p>
Data from: Adult nutritional stress decreases oviposition choosiness and fecundity in female butterflies
Despite the benefits of careful decision-making, not all animals are choosy. One explanation is that choosiness can cost time and energy and thus depend on nutrition. However, it is not clear how allocation to choosiness versus other components of life history shifts in the face of nutritional stress. We tested two hypotheses about the effects of nutritional stress on choosiness and other life history traits: 1) poor nutrition leads to compensatory shifts in life history strategy towards greater investment per offspring in terms of choosy oviposition behavior and egg resources, and 2) poor nutrition negatively affects a range of life history traits. Cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae) females were reared under low or high nutrition conditions during the larval and adult stage in a fully factorial design. Choosiness was quantified as avoidance of conspecific models during oviposition. Adult life history traits included egg number, egg size, and thorax protein. Females that experienced nutritional stress as adults were less choosy and less fecund, in support of the second hypothesis. Yet females that were stressed as larvae invested more in thorax muscle, consistent with the first hypothesis. Overall, adult nutritional stress decreased investment in multiple reproductive traits, including a behavioral trait, but larval stress increased investment in flight, potentially to disperse away from nutritionally poor environments.
Figure 8. - Pollination and oviposition behavior of the Japanese Epicephala species. A Epicephalaanthophilia female actively depositing pollen on Glochidionacuminatum female flower B Epicephalaanthophilia ovipositing through stylar pit of Glochidionacuminatum flower C Epicephalabipollenella ovipositing through stylar pit of Glochidionzeylanicum flower D Epicephalalanceolatella ovipositing through stylar pit of Glochidionlanceolatum flower E Epicephalaperplexa ovipositing through lateral ovary wall of Glochidionlanceolatum flower F Epicephalaobovatella ovipositing through lateral ovary wall of Glochidionobovatum flower G Epicephalacorruptrix ovipositing through ovary wall of Glochidionrubrum flower H Epicephalavitisidaea ovipositing in the interspace between ovary and tepal I Epicephalaparasitica ovipositing in young fruit of Phyllanthuslepidocarpus.
Figure 8. - Pollination and oviposition behavior of the Japanese Epicephala species. A Epicephalaanthophilia female actively depositing pollen on Glochidionacuminatum female flower B Epicephalaanthophilia ovipositing through stylar pit of Glochidionacuminatum flower C Epicephalabipollenella ovipositing through stylar pit of Glochidionzeylanicum flower D Epicephalalanceolatella ovipositing through stylar pit of Glochidionlanceolatum flower E Epicephalaperplexa ovipositing through lateral ovary wall of Glochidionlanceolatum flower F Epicephalaobovatella ovipositing through lateral ovary wall of Glochidionobovatum flower G Epicephalacorruptrix ovipositing through ovary wall of Glochidionrubrum flower H Epicephalavitisidaea ovipositing in the interspace between ovary and tepal I Epicephalaparasitica ovipositing in young fruit of Phyllanthuslepidocarpus.
Data and code for: Facilitating the recovery of insect communities in restored streams by increasing oviposition habitat
<p>Recruitment limitation is known to influence species abundances and distributions. Recognition of how and why it occurs both in natural and in designed environments could improve restoration. Aquatic insects, for instance, rarely re-establish in restored streams to levels comparable to reference streams even years after post-restoration. We experimentally increased oviposition habitat in five out of ten restored streams in western North Carolina to test whether insect egg-laying habitat was limiting insect populations in restored streams. A main goal was to test whether adding oviposition habitat in the form of rocks that partially protrude above the water surface could be used to increase the abundance and richness of stream insect eggs and larval insects in restored streams. Adding egg-laying habitat enhanced several response variables (e.g., protruding rocks, number of eggs, egg masses, egg morphotype richness, and oviposition habitat stability) to levels similar to those found in reference streams. Following the addition of protruding rocks, egg mass abundance increased by 186 % and richness increased by 77 % respectively in restored-treated streams. Densities of larval insects that attached their eggs to protruding rocks showed an overall pattern consistent with treatment effects due to the combination of non-significant and significant increases of several taxa and not just one taxon. Our results indicate that these stream insect populations are limited by oviposition habitat and that adding egg-laying habitat alleviated this component of recruitment limitation. However, the weaker larval response indicates that additional post-recruitment factors, such as egg or larval mortality, may still be limiting a full recovery of larval insect abundances in these restored streams. This study shows the importance of integrating information from animal life histories, ecology, and geomorphology into restoration practices to improve the recovery of aquatic insects, which are commonly used to assess water quality and the biological efficacy of stream restoration.</p>
Data for: Oviposition fluids mediate larval competition
<p><span class="listItem">Parasitoid wasp larvae engage in intense interspecific competition when sharing a host insect, with lethal consequences for the losers. Larval parasitoid competition is generally thought to be resolved by physical traits, such as enlarged mandibles. Although solitary parasitoid larvae are typically superior competitors against gregarious larvae, such physical traits are unlikely to be effective against large numbers of competitors. Larval competition may instead be mediated by maternal factors that increase the survival of offspring facing interspecific competition, thus increasing parental fitness.</span></p> <p><span class="listItem"><span class="Dummy">When laying eggs inside a host, many female parasitoids also inject oviposition fluids that are known to suppress host immune responses, permitting successful offspring development. We explored whether the oviposition fluids of two wasp species in the genus </span><em><span class="fi">Cotesia</span></em><span class="Dummy"> (</span><span class="fi"><em>Cotesia rubecula</em>,</span><span class="Dummy"> a strong competitor that almost always wins interspecific competition against a weaker competitor, </span><em><span class="fi">Cotesia glomerata</span></em><span class="Dummy">) might also represent maternal factors that improve the interspecific competitive ability of their offspring.</span></span></p> <p><span class="listItem"><span class="Dummy">We demonstrate that injections of both venom and calyx fluid from </span><em><span class="fi">C. rubecula</span></em><span class="Dummy"> can inhibit egg hatching and larval development of </span><em><span class="fi">C. glomerata</span></em><span class="Dummy">. Venom from </span><em><span class="fi">C. rubecula</span></em><span class="Dummy"> decreased </span><em><span class="fi">C. glomerata</span></em><span class="Dummy"> egg development by 2.7 times, and calyx fluid injections caused deformities in 23% of developing </span><span class="fi"><em>C. glomerata</em>.</span><span class="Dummy"> In contrast, reciprocal injections of the oviposition fluids from </span><em><span class="fi">C. glomerata</span></em><span class="Dummy"> did not inhibit the development of </span><span class="fi">C. rubecula</span><span class="Dummy">.</span></span></p> <p><span class="listItem">Our results show that maternal factors can improve the interspecific competitive ability of parasitoid larvae, challenging the previous assumptions that larval competition was resolved primarily through physical combat or larval secretions.</span></p>
Multiple choice of Aphalara itadori for oviposition among three knotweed species
<p>Intraspecific hybridization between distinct populations could increase fitness and adaptive potential of biological control agents that often have low genetic diversity and can be inbred due to long-term laboratory rearing often at small population sizes. Hybridization can also alter host preference and performance when the parental insect populations are adapted to different host plants. We investigated the effects of hybridization between two populations (Northern and Southern) of the psyllid, <em>Aphalara itadori</em>, that have different fitness on three invasive knotweed species (Japanese, giant, and Bohemian). Fecundity, host choice, and developmental success of second-generation reciprocal hybrids and the parental psyllid populations were compared on the three knotweed species in multiple choice tests. Hybridization did not increase fecundity. All three knotweed species were accepted for oviposition without preference by the Southern and the two hybrid psyllid populations. The northern psyllid population laid the most eggs on Bohemian knotweeds but those were maladaptive choices since almost all eggs failed to develop. Developmental success of the parental psyllid populations was highest on the knotweed species they were originally collected from, on Japanese knotweed of the Southern psyllids and on giant knotweed of the Northern psyllids. Hybrids had intermediate or higher survival on given knotweed hosts compared to their parents. These results can inform release tactics of <em>A. itadori </em>in different regions especially where there appears to be climatic and/or host mismatches such as in Michigan. In southern Michigan, based on climate the Northern psyllid population should be released. However, the most common knotweed species in the region are Bohemian and Japanese knotweeds that do not support development of the Northern psyllids. In this case, hybrids that may carry cold adaptations of the Northern psyllids but have better developmental success on the prevailing knotweed species may be considered for release to increase establishment success.</p>
Fig. 2 in Observations On The Ovipositing Strategy Of Gortyna Borelii Pierret, 1837 (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) In A British Population
Fig. 2. Example ovipositing behavioural observation session
Fig. 1 in Observations On The Ovipositing Strategy Of Gortyna Borelii Pierret, 1837 (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) In A British Population
Fig. 1. The species on which Gortyna borelii was observed ovipositing
Effects of oviposition in a non-host species on foraging behaviour of the parasitoid Cotesia glomerata
<p><span>Parasitoids lay their eggs in or on a host, usually another insect. During foraging, parasitoids can encounter insects that differ in terms of host suitability and quality. At one extreme end of this spectrum are non-hosts that are unsuitable for offspring development.</span></p> <p><span>Non-hosts are generally ignored but parasitization does occur and occasionally also results in egg deposition. Here, we investigate how oviposition in a non-host influences subsequent foraging behaviour of a parasitoid and whether this is mediated by learning. Our study system consists of the endoparasitoid <em>Cotesia glomerata</em> and the presumed non-host caterpillar <em>Mamestra brassicae</em>.</span></p> <p><span>In the presence of Pieris brassicae hosts and/or their traces (frass), we observed that <em>C. glomerata</em> inserts its ovipositor into <em>M. brassicae</em> caterpillars. Eggs were deposited, but all eggs disappeared within 96h, confirming the non-host status of <em>M. brassicae</em>. In contrast to our expectation, there was no memory retention after oviposition in a non-host and parasitoids did not alter their behaviour with respect to non-host contacts and ovipositions. Instead, <em>C. glomerata</em> became more motivated to forage on a non-host infested leaf.</span></p> <p><span>We propose that egg deposition in non-hosts by <em>C. glomerata</em> might be due to their high egg load, which is thought to make parasitoids less selective on host quality, especially when they have few reproductive opportunities. In such cases, fitness costs to individual females are low. Egg deposition in non-hosts might ultimately lead to host range expansion if parasitoids overcome the defence response of non-hosts over evolutionary time.</span></p>
Oviposition preference and performance of Plutella xylostella are modulated by natural enemies, larval odours and immune status
<p>Insect herbivores frequently must balance host plant quality and the risk of attack by their natural enemies when making oviposition decisions. Yet, which factor is more important remains unresolved in plant-insect ecology. Here, we report the oviposition preference and larval performance of the brassicaceous specialist <em>Plutella xylostella</em>, in the context of plant quality (cabbage <em>Brassica oleracea</em>, vs. mustard <em>B. juncea</em>) and associated natural enemies. <a name="_Hlk95552650"></a>Despite the greater larval weight and adult life-span on cabbage, ovipositing females strongly preferred mustard. Both the egg parasitoid <em>Trichogrammatoidea bactrae</em> and the larval ectoparasitoid <em>Bracon brevicornis</em> are more likely to attack <em>P. xylostella</em> that feed on cabbage; thus, mustard represents enemy-reduced space from these two parasitoids. However, larval diet had no impact on the parasitization rate of specialist <em>Cotesia vestalis</em>. Feeding on mustard improved larval immunity. The total hemocytes number, diversity and phenoloxidase activity was higher on mustard-fed larvae that increased their survival against the entomopathogen, <em>Bacillus thuringiensis. </em>Interestingly, host plants altered the larval body odour profile. Mustard fed larvae emitted allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) and butyl isothiocyanate (BITC) while cabbage fed larvae emitted dimethyl disulphide (DMDS) and dimethyl trisulphide (DMTS) that served as short-range cues for larval parasitoids. For <em>B. brevicornis</em>, host body odour guided oviposition choice was crucial as their fitness was affected by the host larval diet. Although, <em>C. vestalis</em> showed a clear preference towards volatiles emitted by mustard fed larvae, their fitness was unaltered. Taken together, our results illustrate that <em>P. xylostella</em> prefers to lay eggs on mustard plants providing enemy-reduced space from some, but not all, natural enemies.</p>
Data from: not enough time: short-term female presence after oviposition does not improve egg survival in the Emerald glass frog
<p>In species exhibiting egg attendance, parents remain with their eggs, protecting them against harsh abiotic conditions, such as dehydration or drowning, and biotic conditions, such as predation, parasitism, and diseases. This form of post-oviposition parental care is widely observed in animals, including amphibians. Long-term egg attendance (spanning several days) is common among glass frogs, and removal experiments have demonstrated the critical role of the parent, whether male or female, in increasing egg survival. However, in a few glass frog species, females stay close to their eggs for less than three hours after oviposition. Previous studies have found that maternal presence reduces dehydration and predation despite the short duration of this attendance behavior. In the glass frog <em>Espadarana prosoblepon</em>, females remain close to their eggs for less than 1.5 hours after oviposition. Given that the embryonic development period in this species spans an average of 25 days, our main question was whether remaining with the clutch for only 0.15% of this time is sufficient to increase egg survival. To address this question, we conducted a female removal experiment in semi-captivity and found no evidence that female presence improves egg hydration after oviposition. In a maternal commitment behavioral assay, most females promptly abandoned their clutches when subjected to a gentle disturbance and did not return to them. Lastly, a female removal experiment under field conditions revealed that clutches with or without mothers experienced similar levels of mortality, primarily caused by invertebrate predators. Through a series of experimental assays, we demonstrate that the short-term female presence in <em>E. prosoblepon</em> does not increase egg survival. Therefore, we argue that the post-oviposition behavior observed in this species cannot be considered parental care behavior. Our findings challenge the assumption that the proximity of parents and their eggs is an unequivocal indicator of parental care.</p>
An advanced metabolomic approach untangles oviposition preference of grape skin by Drosophila suzukii
Open the record for dataset details and reuse information.
Data from: Oviposition strategies of Pieridae butterflies in nature and the role of an egg-killing plant trait therein
<p>Most herbivorous insects are host-plant specialists that evolved detoxification mechanisms to overcome their host plant's toxins. In the evolutionary arms-races between Pieridae butterflies and Brassicaceae plants, some plant species have evolved another defence against the pierids: egg-killing. Underneath the eggs, leaves develop a so-called hypersensitive response HR-like cell death. Whether some butterflies have evolved oviposition strategies to counter-adapt against egg-killing remains to be studied. In this study, we assessed the oviposition site location of pierid butterflies on their natural host plants. We described the plant tissue on which we located the eggs of the most common Pieridae in the Netherlands: <em>Gonepteryx rhamni, Anthocharis cardamines, Pieris rapae, P. napi, P. brassicae,</em> and<em> P. mannii</em>. Additionally, we assessed expression of HR-like cell death in response to the deposited butterfly eggs. We found that both <em>A. cardamines </em>and <em>G. rhamni </em>mainly oviposited on the floral stem and the branch, respectively, and oviposited on host plants from lineages not expected to express HR in response to pierid eggs. Accordingly, no HR responses were seen. All <em>Pieris</em> eggs found were located on leaves of their host, the only tissue found to express HR-like cell death. Furthermore, each <em>Pieris</em> species was found to at least occasionally oviposit on <em>Brassica nigra</em>. This was the only plant species in this survey that expressed HR-like cell death in response to the eggs of <em>P. rapae, P. napi </em>and <em>P. brassicae</em>. Our observations demonstrate that HR-like cell death remains an effective defence strategy against these <em>Pieris</em> species and as such did not find evidence for the hypothesised counterstrategies. Surveying certain key species and disentangling the micro-evolution of oviposition strategies within a species would allow us to further investigate potential counter-adaptations that evolved against HR-like cell death. This study provides the basis for further investigation of potential counter-adaptations to egg-killing defences.</p>
Data from: Flexible oviposition behavior enabled the evolution of terrestrial reproduction
<p>In vertebrates, nearly all oviparous animals are considered to have either obligate aquatic or terrestrial oviposition, with eggs that are specialized for developing in those environments. The terrestrial environment has considerably more oxygen but is dry and thus presents both opportunities and challenges for developing embryos, particularly those adapted for aquatic development. Here, we present evidence from field experiments examining egg-laying behavior, egg size and egg jelly function of 13 species of Central and South American treefrogs in the genus <em>Dendropsophus, </em>which demonstrates that flexible oviposition (individuals laying eggs both in and out of water) and eggs capable of both aquatic and terrestrial development are the likely factors which enable the transition from aquatic to terrestrial reproduction. Nearly half of the species we studied had previously undescribed degrees of flexible oviposition. Species with obligate terrestrial reproduction have larger eggs than species with aquatic reproduction, and species with flexible reproduction have eggs of intermediate sizes. Obligate terrestrial breeding frogs also have egg masses that absorb water more quickly than those with flexible oviposition. We also examined eight populations of a single species, <em>Dendropsophus ebraccatus</em>, and document substantial intraspecific variation in terrestrial oviposition; populations in rainy, stable climates lay fewer eggs in water than those in drier areas. However, no differences in egg size were found, supporting the idea that the behavioral component of oviposition evolves before other adaptations associated with obligate terrestrial reproduction. Collectively, these data demonstrate the key role that behavior can have in facilitating major evolutionary transitions.</p>
Fig. 1 in Seasonal oviposition activity of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in San Miguel de Tucumán, northwestern Argentina
Fig. 1. Aerial photograph of the study area in San Miguel de Tucumán, northwestern Argentina.
Fig. 2 in Effect of the oviposition period and age of the females of Dalbulus maidis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in the emergence of egg parasitoids
Fig. 2. Emergence of adult parasitoids relative to number of eggs laid by Dalbulus maidis females.
Table 1 in Predation and oviposition potential of Brazilian populations of the predatory mite Amblyseius tamatavensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on eggs of Bemisia tabaci (Insecta: Hemiptera)
<p><b>Table 1</b> Sites and plants where the populations of <i>Amblyseius tamatavensis</i> were collected in Brazil (May 2015 to May 2016).</p><table><tbody><tr><th>Populations</th><th><b>Substrate</b></th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>1.Olho d’Água das Flores (Alagoas)</th><td><i>Ipomoea pes-caprae</i> (Convolvulaceae)</td></tr><tr><th>2.Jataí (Goiás)</th><td>Several plants</td></tr><tr><th>3.Nova Crixás (Goiás)</th><td>Several plants</td></tr><tr><th>4.Bom Repouso (Minas Gerais)</th><td>Several plants</td></tr><tr><th>5.Ituiutaba (Minas Gerais)</th><td>Several plants</td></tr><tr><th>6.Senador Amaral (Minas Gerais)</th><td>Several plants</td></tr><tr><th>7.Campinas (São Paulo)</th><td><i>Psidium guajava</i> (Myrtaceae)</td></tr><tr><th>8.Cananéia (São Paulo)</th><td><i>Persea americana</i> (Lauraceae)</td></tr><tr><th>9.Mogi Guaçu (São Paulo)</th><td><i>Citrus</i> sp. (Rutaceae)</td></tr><tr><th>10.Piracicaba, ESALQ (São Paulo)</th><td><i>Gossypium</i> sp. (Malvaceae)</td></tr><tr><th>11.Piracicaba, Areão (São Paulo)</th><td><i>Rosa</i> sp. (Rosaceae)</td></tr><tr><th>12.Saltinho (São Paulo)</th><td><i>Cocos nucifera</i> (Arecaceae)</td></tr><tr><th>13.Santa Maria da Serra (São Paulo)</th><td>Several plants</td></tr><tr><th>14. Laboratory</th><td><i>Capsicum annuum</i> (Solanaceae)</td></tr></tbody></table>
Table 3 in Predation and oviposition potential of Brazilian populations of the predatory mite Amblyseius tamatavensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on eggs of Bemisia tabaci (Insecta: Hemiptera)
<p><b>Table 3</b> Daily means (± standard error of the mean) of eggs of <i>Bemisia tabaci</i> killed and eggs laid by adult female of populations of <i>Amblyseius tamatavensis</i> collected in different Brazilian municipalities.</p><table><tbody><tr><th><b>Collection sites</b></th><th><b>Predation</b></th><th><b>Oviposition</b></th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Olho d’água das Flores</th><td>7.9 ± 0.7 a</td><td>1.2 ± 0.2 a</td></tr><tr><th>Laboratório</th><td>7.0 ± 0.4 b</td><td>1.1 ± 0.3 ab</td></tr><tr><th>Jataí</th><td>6.5 ± 0.4 c</td><td>0.8 ± 0.1 c</td></tr><tr><th>Saltinho</th><td>6.5 ± 0.3 c</td><td>1.0 ± 0.1 b</td></tr><tr><th>Mogi-Guaçu</th><td>6.5 ± 0.3 c</td><td>0.8 ± 0.0 c</td></tr><tr><th>Piracicaba - Fazenda Areão</th><td>6.5 ± 0.2 c</td><td>1.0 ± 0.2 b</td></tr><tr><th>Senador Amaral</th><td>6.5 ± 0.1 c</td><td>0.9 ± 0.3 bc</td></tr><tr><th>Bom Repouso</th><td>6.3 ± 0.3 cd</td><td>0.9 ± 0.2 bc</td></tr><tr><th>Ituiutaba</th><td>6.3 ± 0.2 cd</td><td>0.8 ± 0.1 c</td></tr><tr><th>Campinas</th><td>6.3 ± 0.2 cd</td><td>1.0 ± 0.1 b</td></tr><tr><th>Cananéia</th><td>6.3 ± 0.1 cd</td><td>0.9 ± 0.2 bc</td></tr><tr><th>Santa Maria da Serra</th><td>6.1 ± 0.4 d</td><td>0.8 ± 0.1 c</td></tr><tr><th>Piracicaba - ESALQ</th><td>6.0 ± 0.5 d</td><td>0.9 ± 0.1 bc</td></tr><tr><th>Nova Crixás</th><td>5.0 ± 0.3 e</td><td>0.7 ± 0.2 c</td></tr></tbody></table><p>For each column, rates followed by the same letter are not statistically different (Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA; Dunn´s test).</p>
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