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Fig. 9 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 9. Ultrastructure of Cynipini venom glands. (A) Transversal section of a venom gland of the agamic generation of Disholcaspis quercusmamma, obtained with confocal microscope and stained with Hoechst (DNA) and phalloidin (actin). S: nuclei of secretory cells; L: lumen; white arrow: nuclei of ductule cells. (B, C) Volume rendered micrographs of D. quercusmamma agamic generation venom gland. (B) Secretory cell nuclei (blue) and end apparati (represented by red actin canals), with a subfigure showing the proximity between the nuclei and the secretory region. (C) End apparati of secretory cells, with a subfigure showing the curvature of the secretory region.Yellow: lumen. (D, E) Surface rendered micrographs of A. erinacei agamic generation venom gland obtained by serial block face scanning electron microscopy (D: top view, E: lateral view).The subfigures show the connections between the subcellular elements. Red: end apparatus; green: duct; yellow: lumen; blue: secretory cell nuclei; and purple: ductule cell nuclei.

Fig. 10 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 10. Transmission electron micrographs of the venom gland secretory region of Cynipoids. (A, A′) Disholcaspis quercusmamma agamic generation. (B, B′) Acraspis erinacei agamic generation. (C, C′) Amphibolips confluenta sexual generation. (D, D′, D") Diastrophus nebulosus. (E, E′) Antistrophus laciniatus. (F) Synergus sp. (G) Schematic summarizing the organization of the venom secretory unit inferred from TEM images. The extracellular medium of the 3 tested Cynipini contain high concentrations of nanometric particles. In D. quercusmamma, these particles (P1) are also found in secretory vesicles and seem to assemble into fibers once secreted. In A. erinacei, some secretory vesicles are observed, without particle content, whereas no vesicle are clearly visible in A. confluenta. In this last species, secretory units are surrounded by large granules. In Diastrophus nebulosus, nanometric particles seems to assemble into a 250 nm particle (P2) within secretory vesicles. Once secreted these P2 seem to form larger agglomerations. Lamellar bodies are also secreted in this species. The secretory unit is reduced and surrounded by light vesicles that do not contain any particles in the inquiline Synergus sp. An accumulation of vesicles and granules is observed around the secretory unit of A. laciniatus. In comparison, virus-like particles are secreted in Leptopilina sp. (adapted from Ferrarese et al., 2009). Legend: d: duct, e: extracellular medium, v: vesicle, mv: microvilli, g: granules, P1: 50 nm particle, P2: 250 nm particle, L: lamellar body, VLP: viruslike particle, p40: virus-like particle protein p40. Scale bar = 2 μm.

Fig. 12 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 12. Reproductive apparatus anatomy of various Cynipids. Scale bar = 0.5 mm. Ovaries and accessory glands of 8 species belonging to three tribes, with insets showing the detail of the accessory sacs when necessary. Green arrow: accessory sacs, pink arrow: ovary extremity, and yellow dashed line: accessory gland.

Fig. 8 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 8. Evolutionary pattern of the venom apparatus relative size in Cynipoids. Phenograms depicting the relative size of the venom gland on the left (ratio venom gland length over metasoma length) and the relative size of venom reservoir on the right (ratio venom reservoir area over metasoma area), with indication of the four gall-inducing clades.The phenograms are based on a time calibrated phylogeny of Cynipoidea (Blaimer et al. 2020, Ward et al. 2022), and phylogenetic tree tips are plotted according to their phenotypic value. A: agamic generation, S: sexual generation.

Fig. 7 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 7. Boxplots of the relative size of the venom apparatus in Cynipoids in relation to taxonomic group and life-history traits. This includes (A) lifestyle, (B) tribes, (C) plant tissue attacked among gallers, (D) number of larval chambers in the induced galls (uni- or multilocular), and, among Cynipini, (E) generation. Diplolepidini were excluded due to their absence of fully developed venom apparatus. Bars marked with a different letter indicate significant difference, NS indicates a non-significant difference (Tukey post hoc test, P ≤ 0.05).

Fig. 6 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 6. Divergent appearances of Cynipid wasp venoms.The variable venom coloration in the sexual generation of the genus Amphibolips, ranging from light yellow in most species to dark brown in A. acuminata (first line). Other venom coloration observed in gall wasps (middle line).The agamic generation was dissected for Kokkocynips imbricariae and Atrusca unica. For Callirhytis seminator, A: agamic generation, S: sexual generation, Anti.: Antistrophus.The needle crystals found in the venom reservoir of Andricus robustus (bottom line).

Fig. 5 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 5. Venom apparatus anatomy representative of different Cynipid tribes. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.White arrow: insertion point of the reservoir into the ovipositor; red arrow: insertion point of the gland into the reservoir.The insert for Antistrophus silphii shows the detail of the reservoir morphology, with division between the narrow region (NR) and the large region (LR).

Fig. 4 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 4. Relative size of the venom apparatus in Cynipoids. (A) Venom gland length relative to metasoma length, with the names of the species having the largest venom gland over metasoma ratio indicated. (B) Venom reservoir area relative to metasoma area, with the names of the species having the largest venom reservoir over metasoma ratio indicated. (C) The ratios of venom reservoir area over metasoma area, and venom gland length over metasoma length for each species dissected.The dendrogram is adapted from Blaimer et al. (2020). For venom gland graphs, the dashed lines correspond to the venom gland length equaling the metasoma size, and to the reservoir area equaling 5% of the metasoma area for venom reservoir graphs.The central band indicates the species lifestyle (galler, inquiline, or parasitoid) and the generation for Cynipini (sexual, agamic, or unknown).The colors carry through from (A)–(C) and indicate the cynipoid tribes outlined in (C). Ceropt. = Ceroptrini, Diastrop. = Diastrophini, Diplo. = Diplolepidini, G. = Galler, Inq. = Inquiline, ND = Not dissected.

Fig. 3 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 3. Anatomy of the metasoma of the agamic female of Disholcaspis quercusmamma (Cynipini). (A) Photograph of the adult of the agamic generation. (B) Exocrine and reproductive organs of the metasoma studied in this article. (C–E) Reconstructed internal structures of the metasoma using micro-tomography. (C) Right-lateral view. (D) Detail of the venom apparatus in lateral view. e) Detail of the accessory gland complex in dorsal view. Legend: red arrow: insertion point of the gland into the reservoir; orange, venom gland; purple, venom reservoir; yellow, accessory gland; dark blue, accessory sac; green, ovaries; and light blue, gut. Axis: D, dorsal;V, ventral; A, anterior; P, posterior; L, left; R, right. Scale bar: 1 mm.

Fig. 2 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 2. Examples of oviposition in Cynipidae. Unidentified Cynipini wasps laying eggs (A) in the secondary vein of a red oak (Quercus rubra) and (B) in the bud of a white oak (Quercus alba). (C) Inquiline cynipid wasp (Ceroptres sp.) laying eggs into the petiole gall of the sexual generation of Melikaiella tumifica on Q. rubra. (D) Diplolepis nodulosa (Diplolepidini) ovipositing in a rose bud.

Fig. 1 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 1. Diversity of galls induced by Cynipid wasps. Four clades of Cynipidae contain gall-inducing species: the rose-gallers (Diplolepidini), the herb gallers (Aylacini sensu lato), the non-rose Rosaceae gallers (Diastrophini), and the oak gallers (Cynipidini). Cynipidini alternate two generations, sexual and agamic, that differ in their phenotype. Cynipid galls can be induced in various organs (bud, flower, fruit, leaf, root, or stem), and contain one larval chamber (unilocular gall) or several (multilocular gall). Photo credits:Tom Murray (Disholcaspis quercusmamma), Matthew Wills (Acraspis erinacei), Jeremy Collison (Amphibolips confluenta), Bill MacIndewar (Callirhytis quercusfutilis), Jeff Skrentny (Antistrophis silphii), and Erin Faulkner (Diplolepis bicolor).

Fig. 4 in Evidence of venom factor-like in crocodilians

Fig. 4 Densitree plot of VF-like and C3 complement. Based on analysis of database sequences of 20 species and 3712 topolo- gies. A total of 26,995 trees were drawn, shown in green. The root channel is shown in black. Every node in the phylogeny with dot shape has posterior probability higher than 0,8

Fig. 3 in Evidence of venom factor-like in crocodilians

Fig. 3 Phylogenetic tree of C3 complement. Database sequences by Bayesian inference. Posterior probabilities are greater than 9 unless indicated otherwise. The bottom bar shows the time scale divergence time in MY

Fig. 2 in Evidence of venom factor-like in crocodilians

Fig. 2 Phylogenetic tree of VF-like. Database sequences by Bayesian inference. Posterior probabilities are greater than 9 unless indicated otherwise. The bottom bar shows the time scale in MY

Fig. 1 in Evidence of venom factor-like in crocodilians

Fig. 1 Phylogenetic tree of VF-like. Including our obtained sequences from C. latirostris and sequences from GenBank (A. sinensis and A. mississippiensis), using P. gutturalis as outgroup. Posterior probabili-

FIGURE 5 in The Venom Apparatus And Other Morphological Characters Of The Ant Martialis Heureka (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Martialinae)

FIGURE 5: Venom apparatus of a Martialis heureka worker. A. Sting in profile. B. Lancets in profile. C. Sting in dorsal view, showing the furcula.

FIGURE 4 in The Venom Apparatus And Other Morphological Characters Of The Ant Martialis Heureka (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Martialinae)

FIGURE 4: Venom apparatus of a Martialis heureka worker. A. Spiracular plate and part of median connection. B. Quadrate plate. C. Triangular plate and lancet rami (partially). D. Oblong plate.

FIGURE 3 in The Venom Apparatus And Other Morphological Characters Of The Ant Martialis Heureka (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Martialinae)

FIGURE 3: Electron micrography of the postpetiole and fourth abdominal segment (1st gastral) of a Martialis heureka worker. A. Postpetiole in profile. B. Postpetiole in frontal view. C. fourth abdominal segment (1st gastral) in profile.

FIGURE 1 in The Venom Apparatus And Other Morphological Characters Of The Ant Martialis Heureka (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Martialinae)

FIGURE 1: Electron micrographs of the left mandible of a Martialis heureka worker. A. Internal view of the whole mandible. B. Detail of mandibular base: CA, canthellus, GI, ginglymus, MA, mandalus, TR, trulleum. C. Detail of mandibular apical portion. D. Preapical teeth, showing, at left, the beginning of the two dorsal ridges and their teeth.

FIGURE 2 in The Venom Apparatus And Other Morphological Characters Of The Ant Martialis Heureka (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Martialinae)

FIGURE 2: Electron micrographs of the mesosoma and legs of a Martialis heureka worker. A. Pronotum in lateral view. B. Mesometapropodeal complex with middle coxa and trochanter in profile. C. Detail of metapleural gland (MG) and propodeal spiracle openings (PS), and petiolar foramen (FR). D. Meso-metapropodeal complex in dorsal view. E. Meso-metapropodeal complex in ventral view. F. Detail of metacoxal cavity (MC), propodeal spiracle opening (PS), and petiolar foramen (FR). G. Fore coxa in profile.