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Figure 3 in Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants, tending ants, natural enemies and morphology

Figure 3. Natural enemies of Parrhasius polibetes. (A) Parasitoid wasp (arrow) emerging from an egg; (B) Pseudomyrmex ant preying on eggs (arrow); (C) second instar parasitized by a braconid wasp (arrow); (D) ichneumonid cocoon under third instar host remains; (E) wasp (Conura sp.; Chalcididae) parasitizing a fourth (last) instar; (F) fourth instar being attacked by a ceratopogonid biting midge (arrow); (G) predatory bug (Podisus nigrispinus; Asopinae) sucking a fourth instar larva; (H) remains of a fourth instar larva preyed by an araneid spider. Figures can be viewed in colour online.

Figure 2 in Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants, tending ants, natural enemies and morphology

Figure 2. Larval colour patters of Parrhasius polibetes on different host plants. (A) Third instar on Pyrostegia venusta; (B) third instar "red morph" on Pyrostegia venusta; (C) third instar on Pouteria torta being tended by a worker of Camponotus crassus; (D) fourth (last) instar on Pyrostegia venusta; (E) fourth instar on Styrax ferrugineus being tended by a worker of Camponotus sp.; (F) fourth instar on Banisteriopsis campestris; (G) fourth instar on Eugenia bimarginata being tended by a worker of Camponotus leydigi. Figures can be viewed in colour online.

Figure 1 in Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants, tending ants, natural enemies and morphology

Figure 1. Life stages of Parrhasius polibetes on Schefflera vinosa (A–C, F, G) and on Luehea grandiflora (D, E). (A) Adult female; (B) newly-laid egg (arrow); (C) egg after 24 h; (D) eggs (arrow) laid near an aggregation of Guayaquila xiphias treehoppers tended by Camponotus crassus workers; (E) egg accidentally laid on an ant-tended treehopper nymph of Enchenopa sp.; (F) first instar; (G) third instar being tended by a worker of Cephalotes pusillus; (H) fourth (last) instar being tended by a worker of Camponotus crassus; (I) pupa. Figures can be viewed in colour online.

Figure 5 in Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants, tending ants, natural enemies and morphology

Figure 5. Chaetotaxy of first instar larva of Parrhasius polibetes. (A) Head in frontal view; (B) head in lateral view; (C) body diagram in lateral view. For chaetotaxy abbreviations see Downey and Allyn (1984b), Duarte et al. (2005) and Ballmer and Wright (2008).

Figure 7 in Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants, tending ants, natural enemies and morphology

Figure 7. Scanning electron micrographs of fourth (last) instar (A–F) and pupae (G–I) of Parrhasius polibetes. (A) Head in lateral view; (B) prothoracic shield; (C) detail of the abdominal tegument in dorsal view; (D) spiracle on A2 segment; (E) opening of the dorsal nectar organ with perforated cupola organs (arrow); (F) detail of the perforated cupola organ; (G) spiracle on A5 segment, note the perforated cupola organs (arrow); (H) detail of the abdominal tegument in lateral view; (I) detail of the stridulating area between A5–A6 segments (arrow).

Figure 4 in Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants, tending ants, natural enemies and morphology

Figure 4. Scanning electron micrographs of Parrhasius polibetes egg. (A) Anterior and lateral view of two eggs; (B) micropylar area; (C) detail of an aeropyle on a rib intersection.

Figures 236–251 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 236–251. Pupae of the Aporiina from the Old World, showing dorsal and lateral views. (236–247) Delias from Australia; (236–237) D. ennia; (238–239) D. harpalyce; (240–241) D. nigrina; (242–243) D. aganippe; (244–245) D. argenthona; (246–247) D. nysa; (248–249) Aporia crataegi from Europe; (250–251) Mylothris agathina from Africa.

Figures 182–198 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 182–198. Catasticta flisa immature stages on Phoradendron undulatum, Monteverde (1500 m), Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. (182–184) Eggs, showing cohort (182), lateral view (183), and colour several days after deposition, dorsolateral view (184); (185–186) larval instar I, showing newly emerged (185), and dorsolateral view (186); (187) larval instar II, cohort feeding; (188) larval instar III, cohort; (189) larval instar IV; (190–193) larva instar V, showing dorsolateral view (190), dorsal view (191), anterolateral view of head capsule (192), and posterior view (193); (194) prepupa, dorsolateral view; (195–198) pupa, showing lateral view (195), dorsal view (196), anterolateral view of projection of head (197), and posterior view of last abdominal segments (198).

Figures 162–181 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 162–181. Catasticta hegemon immature stages on Antidaphne viscoidea, Monteverde (1400 m), Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. (162–164) Eggs, showing cohort (162), dorsolateral view (163), and lateral view (164); (165–166) larval instar I, showing newly emerged (165), and cohort after feeding (166); (167–168) larval instar II, showing cohort (167), and dorsolateral view (168); (169) larval instar III, cohort moulting; (170–171) larval instar IV, showing cohort (170), and anterior view (171); (172–175) larva instar V, showing lateral view after moulting (172), dorsolateral view (173), anterolateral view of head capsule (174), and posterolateral view (175); (176–177) prepupa, showing lateral view (176), and dorsal view (177); (178– 181) pupa, showing lateral view (178), dorsal view (179), anterolateral view of projection of head (180), and posterior view of last abdominal segments (181).

Figures 81–91. Pereute charops and P in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 81–91. Pereute charops and P. cheops immature stages, Costa Rica. (81–88) P. charops, Río Macho near Orosi (1150 m) and Cachí (1300 m), Cartago Province: (81–84) larval instar V, showing procession of cohort on host tree (81), diurnal aggregation of cohort on host tree together with cohort of instar III (82), cohort on Phoradendron undulatum (83), and tachinid fly parasitoid Trichophora (84); (85) prepupae, lateral view; (86–88) pupae, showing cohort on trunk of host tree (86), lateral view (87), and dorsal view (88); (89–91) P. cheops, Copey (1850 m), San José Province: larval instar V, showing dorsolateral view (89), diurnal aggregation of cohort in leaf litter (90), and diurnal aggregation of cohort at base of host tree (91).

Figures 109–125 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 109–125. Catasticta cerberus immature stages on Dendrophthora costaricensis, Cerro de la Muerte (3100 m), San José Province, Costa Rica. (109–111) Eggs, showing cohort (109), dorsolateral view (110), and lateral view (111); (112–113) larval instar I, showing newly emerged (112), and cohort (113); (114) larval instar II, cohort; (115) larval instar III, cohort moulting; (116) larval instar IV; (117–120) larval instar V, showing lateral view (117), dorsal view (118), anterior view of head capsule (119), and posterior view (120); (121) prepupa, lateral view; (122–125) pupa, showing dorsal view (122), lateral view (123), anterolateral view of projection of head (124), and posterolateral view of last abdominal segments (125).

Figures 64–80 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 64–80. Pereute charops immature stages on Phoradendron undulatum, Río Macho near Orosi (1150 m), Cartago Province, Costa Rica. (64–67) Eggs, showing cohort (64), dorsolateral view (65), lateral view (66), and hatching (67); (68–69) larval instar I, showing newly emerged cohort (68), and lateral view (69); (70–72) larval instar II, showing cohort (70–71), and dorsolateral view (72); (73–74) larval instar III, showing cohort (73), and lateral view (74); (75–76) larval instar IV, showing cohort (75), and dorsal view (76); (77–80) larva instar V, showing lateral view (77), dorsal view (78), anterior view of head capsule (79), and posterior view (80).

Figures 218–235 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 218–235. Pupae of the Catasticta group, showing dorsal and lateral views. (218–219) Melete isandra; (220–221) Pereute charops; (222–223) P. cheops; (224–225) Leodonta tellane; (226–227) Catasticta cerberus; (228–229) C. teutila; (230–231) C. sisamnus; (232–233) C. flisa; (234–235) C. ctemene. Note: Cuticle of L. tellane is clothed with numerous setae, which are not shown.

Figures 4–13 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 4–13. Adults of the Catasticta group. (4) Melete lycimnia isandra freshly emerged female, Costa Rica; (5) M. leucanthe male puddling, Peru; (6) Pereute callinice male puddling, Peru; (7) P. callinira male puddling, Peru; (8) P. cheops female freshly emerged, Costa Rica; (9) P. charops mass emergence, Costa Rica; (10) Leodonta tellane chiriquensis freshly emerged, Costa Rica; (11) Catasticta sisamnus sisamnus female freshly emerged, Costa Rica; (12) Archonias brassolis approximata male perching, Costa Rica; (13) A. brassolis negrina male basking (note beak mark on both wings), Peru. Note: Figure 9 photo, W. Haber.

Figure 252 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figure 252. Phylogeny of the subtribe Aporiina (Pierinae: Pierini) showing systematic relationships at the generic group level (Braby et al. 2007) and its putative sister lineage the Pierina, and the evolution of larval food plants (Braby and Trueman 2006). Notes: Evolution of life history traits are indicated for three characters: E, egg deposition pattern (0, singly; 1, clusters); L, larval foraging behaviour (0, solitary; 1, gregarious); A, adult colouration (0, cryptic; 1, warning; see Table 2); synapomorphies are shown on tree with the following derived character states: a, warning adult colouration; b, cluster egg deposition pattern; c, gregarious larval foraging behaviour.

Figures 24–33 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 24–33. Habitats and larval food plants of the Catasticta group. (24–25) Pereute callinira habitat, San Ramón (1400 m), Chanchamayo district, Peru; (26) P. cheops breeding habitat, showing larval food plant Phoradendron tonduzii parasitizing host tree Croton, Copey (1850 m), San José Province, Costa Rica; (27) P. cheops larval silken trail on trunk of mistletoe host tree Croton, Copey (1850 m), Costa Rica; (28–29) P. charops breeding habitat, Orosi Valley (1100–1200 m), Cartago Province, Costa Rica; arrows show cohort of pupal exuviae on trunk of mistletoe host tree (28) and location of cohort of larvae on trunk of mistletoe host tree Psidium guajava (29); (30) Phoradendron undulatum, a larval food plant of P. charops, Orosi Valley (1100m), Costa Rica; (31) Phoradendron chrysocladon, a larval food plant of Leodonta tellane, Monteverde (1500 m), Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica; (32–33) Leodonta tellane breeding habitat, Monteverde (1500 m), Costa Rica; arrows show location of cohort of larvae on trunk of mistletoe host tree Psidium guajava (32) and location of cohort of pupae on leaves of Clusia stenophylla growing adjacent to mistletoe host tree Conostegia oerstediana (33).

Figures 14–23 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 14–23. Adults of the Catasticta group. (14) Catasticta reducta boliviana male puddling, Peru; (15) C. prioneris male puddling, dorsal view showing red patches at base of each hind wing being "displayed", Peru; (16) C. eurigania straminea male puddling, Peru; (17) C. hegemon hegemon male perching at encounter site, Costa Rica; (18) C. teutila flavomaculata male basking on rock between drinking bouts along creek edge, Costa Rica; (19) C. teutila flavomaculata female feeding from flowers of Ageratina ixiocladon, Costa Rica; (20) C. teutila flavomaculata male freshly emerged, Costa Rica; (21) C. theresa male puddling, Costa Rica; (22) C. cerberus male freshly emerged, Costa Rica; (23) puddling aggregation of Catasticta, Archonias and Pereute amongst other diurnal Lepidoptera, Peru.

Figures 92–108 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 92–108. Leodonta tellane immature stages on Phoradendron chrysocladon, Monteverde (1500 m), Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. (92–94) Eggs, showing cohort (92), lateral view (93), and hatching (94); (95–96) larval instar I, showing cohort (95), and dorsolateral view (96); (97–98) larval instar II, showing cohort (97), and lateral view (98); (99) larval instar III, cohort; (100) larva instar IV, lateral view; (101–103) larval instar V, showing cohort (101), anterolateral view of head capsule (102), and posterior view (103); (104) prepupa, lateral view; (105– 108) pupa, showing lateral view (105), dorsal view (106), anterolateral view of projection of head (107), and posterior view of last abdominal segments (108).

Figures 199–217 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 199–217. Catasticta ctemene immature stages on Antidaphne viscoidea, Monteverde (1400 m), Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. (199–200) Larval instar II, showing cohort moulting (199), and dorsolateral view (200); (201–203) larval instar III, showing cohort (201), dorsal view (202), and lateral view (203); (204–206) larval instar IV, showing cohort dorsal view (204), cohort lateral view (205), and anterior view showing head capsule (206); (207–210) larval instar V, showing lateral view (207), dorsal view of head capsule and prothorax (208), lateral view of head capsule and thoracic segments (209), and posterolateral view (210); (211–212) prepupa, showing posterior view (211), and dorsolateral view (212); (213–216) pupa, showing lateral view (213), dorsal view (214), anterolateral view of projection of head (215), and posterolateral view of last abdominal segments (216); (217) freshly emerged female.

Figures 145–161 in The immature stages, larval food plants and biology of Neotropical mistletoe butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). II. The Catasticta group (Pierini: Aporiina)

Figures 145–161. Catasticta sisamnus immature stages on Antidaphne viscoidea, Río Macho, Orosi Valley (1150 m), Cartago Province, Costa Rica. (145–147) Eggs, showing cohort (145), dorsolateral view (146) and lateral view (147); (148–149) larval instar I, showing newly emerged cohort (148), and cohort several days after feeding (149); (150–151) larval instar II, showing cohort (150), and dorsolateral view (151); (152) larval instar III, cohort moulting; (153–155) larval instar IV, showing dorsal view of head and thoracic segments (153), dorsal view of last abdominal segments (154), and anterior view of head capsule (155); (156) larva instar V and prepupae, dorsal view; (157) prepupa, lateral view; (158–161) pupa, showing lateral view (158), dorsal view (159), anterolateral view of projection of head (160), and posterior view of last abdominal segments (161).