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FIGURE 4 in A description of the skeletal morphology of Rana pyrenaica (Anura: Ranidae), with comments on functional morphology, ecological adaptation and relationships with other Iberian ranids

FIGURE 4. Comparison of the frontoparietal and sphenethmoid between Iberian brown frogs. All these elements correspond to frogs with a similar SVL (around 40–50 mm). For facilitating the comparison, bones have been arranged to a similar size and laterality. Arrows: 1, slight convexity of the margo orbitalis; 2, straighter margo sagittalis; 3, development of the anterior lateral processes; 4, indentation of the posterior chamber; 5, height of the anterior chambers.

FIGURE 12 in A description of the skeletal morphology of Rana pyrenaica (Anura: Ranidae), with comments on functional morphology, ecological adaptation and relationships with other Iberian ranids

FIGURE 12. Comparison of the femur between Iberian brown frogs. All these elements correspond to frogs with a similar Lcc (around 40–50 mm). For facilitating the comparison, bones have been arranged to a similar size and laterality.

FIGURE 10 in A description of the skeletal morphology of Rana pyrenaica (Anura: Ranidae), with comments on functional morphology, ecological adaptation and relationships with other Iberian ranids

FIGURE 10. Comparison of the humerus and radioulna between Iberian brown frogs. All these elements correspond to frogs with a similar SVL (around 40–50 mm). For facilitating the comparison, bones have been arranged to a similar size and laterality.

FIGURE 9 in A description of the skeletal morphology of Rana pyrenaica (Anura: Ranidae), with comments on functional morphology, ecological adaptation and relationships with other Iberian ranids

FIGURE 9. Comparison of the scapula and coracoid between Iberian brown frogs. All these elements correspond to frogs with a similar SVL (around 40–50 mm). For facilitating the comparison, bones have been arranged to a similar size and laterality. Arrows: 1, medial constriction of the scapula; 2, distance between the internal crest and the anterior margin of the scapula; 3, concavity of the anterior margin and slenderness of the medial part of the coracoid.

FIG. 10 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 10. Ontogeny of neuromast distribution in E. lori derived from fluorescent images. (A) 0 dph, 3 mm TL; (B) 10 dph, 4.5 mm SL; (C) 20 dph, 6.5 mm SL; (D) 31 dph, 9 mm SL; and (E) 38 dph, 9 mm SL presettlement larva. Pectoral fin removed to facilitate visualization of all neuromasts on the trunk. Yolk sac not drawn. Scale bar ¼ 1 mm. See Figures 3 and 4 for identity of neuromasts.

FIG. 2 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 2. Neuromast distributions in E. lori vitally stained with 4-di-2-ASP (lateral view, rostral to the left). (A) 0 dph (3 mm NL; yolk sac larva, fin folds still present) with only nine neuromasts present on head. By 1 dph, the yolk sac is fully absorbed and by 10 dph, flexion has started. (B) 38 dph (9.5 mm SL, pre-settlement) individual with all neuromast lines present on head; only the neuromasts in lines on operculum and mandible have begun to proliferate. Canal neuromasts are still visible (e.g., dorsal to orbit), indicating that the canals are not yet fully ossified. Settlement occurs at ~30–45 dph, 9–11 mm SL. (C) Wild-caught adult (42 mm SL) with lines of proliferated superficial neuromasts on head. (D) Trunk and tail of 20 dph (6 mm SL) larva. The few neuromasts on trunk will proliferate to become short vertical series of superficial neuromasts (see F). A few neuromasts on the caudal fin occur in three lines. (E) Anterior portion of the trunk (adult, 42 mm SL) illustrating several short lines of neuromasts. (F) Posterior portion of the trunk (adult, 42 mm SL) with well-organized vertical lines of neuromasts (''stitches'') on each myomere along horizontal septum. (G) Caudal fin (adult, 42 mm SL) with three lines (lines lc, lc1, and lc2) of densely placed neuromasts extending from the fin base to the tip of the caudal fin on the membranes between fin rays. Caudal-fin membranes are so thin that the neuromasts from both the left (white arrowhead) and right (yellow arrowhead) side are visible within a line. See Figures 3 and 4 for identification of neuromast lines.

FIG. 6 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 6. Neuromast and cupular morphology in E. lori. (A) Neuromast showing hair cells in central sensory strip with opposing polarities (hair cell orientation; double-headed arrow). (B) Detail of neuromast, as in A, showing ciliary bundles of individual hair cells (each with kinocilium [kc] and multiple stereocilia [sc]) with opposing polarities. (C) Gelatinous cupula (cu) retained on a neuromast that has the same orientation as neuromast in A; note the ''wing-like'' extensions of the cupula that reaches to the tips (arrows) of the elongate neuromast. (D) Neuromast that appears to be in the process of budding, which is thought to be the mechanism for neuromast proliferation. Double-headed arrows ¼ hair cell orientation.

FIG. 5 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 5. Lateral line development in E. lori. (A–E) Supraorbital (SO) canal with canal neuromasts (CNs) between orbits and superficial neuromasts in larvae. (A) CN (arrow) prior to canal enclosure (Stage I) at 0 dph. (B) CN (arrow) in depression as canal formation starts (Stage IIa) at 10 dph (5 mm SL). Nuclei of cells in two layers are visible in the neuromast (upper layer, sensory hair cells; lower layer, non-sensory support cells). (C) Left and right CNs (arrows) in the SO canal in the dorsal midline, with canal walls rising (*, Stage IIb), but not yet enclosing the CNs. (D) Left and right CNs (arrows, as in C; cupula of left neuromast is visible) are enclosed in the ossified SO canal (Stage IV; wild-caught settler, 14 mm SL). (E) Example of a line of densely placed superficial neuromasts (line c2) in wild-caught settler (14 mm SL) in the nasal area; prominent olfactory epithelium (oe). Stages of canal development (I–IV) follow Webb and Shirey (2003). (F–J) Ontogeny of superficial neuromast size and shape in E. lori showing diamond shape and gradual restriction of hair cells to a central, oval sensory strip. Axis of best physiological sensitivity (hair cell orientation) is perpendicular to the long axis of the neuromast. (F) 0 dph—neuromast on trunk is already diamond-shaped, (G) 10 dph—neuromast on trunk, (H) 20 dph—neuromast on cheek, (I) 34 dph—neuromast on cheek, note that sensory strip takes up a smaller portion of area of the neuromast compared to those in F–H. (J) Adult—superficial neuromast on caudal fin. Scale bars: A–E, 50 lm; F–H, 2 lm; I–J, 5 lm.

FIG. 9 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 9. Comparison of neuromast size in post-settlement juveniles and adult E. lori. Least squared means of (A) neuromast length and (B) neuromast width and standard error are plotted for each neuromast type (canal neuromasts [CN], canal neuromast homologs [CNH], superficial neuromasts [SN])—Head CN (n ¼ 13), Head CNH (n ¼ 45), Head SN (n ¼ 102), Trunk SN (n ¼ 65), and Tail SN (n ¼ 8)—based on linear measurements of scanning electron micrographs. Statistically significant differences are indicated by brackets (post hoc Tukey's HSD, P, 0.05).

FIG. 1 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 1. Examples of the distribution of lateral line canal pores (open circles) and superficial neuromasts (filled circles) in longitudinal and transverse patterns in gobies. (A) Thorogobius macrolepis has a longitudinal pattern with lines ventral to the eye (lines a, b, c, and d) that extend rostro-caudally (re-drawn from Sanzo, 1911). (B) Elacatinus oceanops has a transverse pattern with lines ventral to the eye that radiate from the edge of the orbit, the site of the ancestral infraorbital canal (the only published data for Elacatinus spp.; re-drawn from Miller, 1972). (C) Tigrigobius limbaughi (¼Elacatinus limbaughi), with a transverse pattern (re-drawn from Hoese and Reader, 2001). (D) Tigrigobius macrodon, with a transverse pattern (re-drawn from Miller, 1972).

FIG. 4 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 4. Distribution of superficial neuromasts (black circles) in body and caudal series in an E. lori post-settlement juvenile (''settler''; 38 dph, 9.5 mm SL) based on fluorescent images (see also Fig. 2D–G). Superficial neuromast series (defined by Sanzo, 1911) are color-coded: blue ¼ oculoscapular, purple ¼ anterior dorsal, pink ¼ body, and brown ¼ caudal. Names for superficial neuromast lines within series follow Sanzo (1911) and Wongrat and Miller (1991). The large pectoral fin is not drawn in order to visualize all neuromasts on the trunk. See text for additional details.

FIG. 12 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 12. Neuromast morphology in species of Tigrigobius (lateral views; rostral to left). (A) T. multifasciatus (AMNH 23621)—radiating superficial lines on the cheek (3, 4, 5, b, d; see Fig. 3B). (B) Lines 5 and b (see box in A), which have a tip-to-tip arrangement. (C) T. gemmatus (AMNH 26076)— preopercular canal (PO) pores (e, c) and opercular series (lines ot, os, oi, forming the ''F'' on the operculum). (D) T. gemmatus (AMNH 26076)— superficial neuromast line on trunk just caudal to tip of pectoral fin when against body. (E) T. dilepis (AMNH 250269)—diamond-shaped superficial neuromasts in line os (ventral horizontal line in ''F'' on operculum) with ''tip-to-tip'' arrangement and hair cell orientation (double-headed arrows) perpendicular to line. (F) T. gemmatus (AMNH 26076)—first two diamond-shaped superficial neuromasts in line b (see box in B) with ''tip-to-tip'' arrangement and hair cell orientation (double-headed arrows) perpendicular to line. Scale bars: A, C, 200 lm; B, D, 100 lm; E–F, 20 lm.

FIG. 8 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 8. Neuromast arrangements within lines in E. lori and other goby species examined. (A) Canal neuromasts, aligned ''side-by-side'' with axis of best physiological sensitivity parallel to the length of the canal and line of neuromasts (black lines represent canal walls). (B) Canal neuromast homologs or caudal fin superficial neuromasts, arranged ''side-by-side'' with axis of best physiological sensitivity parallel to line of neuromasts. On the caudal fin, each neuromast line is located on the membrane between adjacent fin rays. Dashed lines represent location of canal walls (in an ancestral canal) on the head or the fin rays on the tail. (C) Superficial neuromasts aligned ''tip-to-tip'' with axis of best physiological sensitivity perpendicular to line. Gray area ¼ sensory strip. Double-headed arrow ¼ axis of best physiological sensitivity (hair cell orientation).

FIG. 11 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 11. Ontogeny of neuromast number on one side of head in E. lori larvae and post-settlement juveniles (0–44 dph and wild-caught settler) based on histological material. Black circles ¼ canal neuromasts, open circles ¼ canal neuromast homologs þ superficial neuromasts. Canal neuromast number increases to a constant (n ¼ 8), which is reached at ~6 mm SL (~15 dph), while canal neuromast homologs and superficial neuromast number increase in number with fish size (R2 ¼ 0.982).

FIG. 7 in Organization and Ontogeny of a Complex Lateral Line System in a Goby (Elacatinus lori), with a Consideration of Function and Ecology

FIG. 7. Superficial neuromasts and canal neuromast homologs on the head and trunk in E. lori (rostral to left in all images). (A) Radiating lines of superficial neuromasts (lines 2, 3, 4, 5, b, and d) on cheek (lateral view). (B) Superficial neuromast series (lines ot, os, and oi) form an ''F'' on operculum (lateral view); preopercular canal pores (e, c) visible. (C) Post-otic region of head (caudal to post-otic canal pore); upper pair of SNs are aligned tip-to-tip and lower group of neuromasts extending caudally from the canal pore are aligned side-by-side (interpreted as canal neuromast homologs). (D) Portion of the double line of neuromasts on mandible (in ventral view), in which the neuromasts in the upper (more lateral) line have a tip-to-tip arrangement (line e; superficial neuromasts) and those in the lower (more median) line have a side-to-side arrangement (line i; canal neuromast homologs). (E) On the trunk, a line of three superficial neuromasts at the horizontal septum arranged tip-to-tip. (F) Middle row of superficial neuromasts on caudal fin (line lc1) aligned side-to-side. Double-headed arrows indicate axis of best physiological activity of hair cells in all images. Scale bars: A–B, 200 lm; C, 100 lm; D–E, 10 lm; F, 20 lm.

Fig. 5 in Comparative Analysis of the Ecological Functions of Dung Removal and Seed Dispersal among Two Telecoprid and Two Paracoprid Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Fig. 5. Box plots of the median, first, and third quartile, and lower and upper limits of dung removal by standardized 1-g biomass of Canthon rutilans cyanescens, Deltochilum multicolor, Dichotomius sericeus, and Phanaeus splendidulus exposed to dog feces for two and seven days. Plots with the same letter are not significantly different (Tukey test, P> 0.05).

Fig. 4 in Comparative Analysis of the Ecological Functions of Dung Removal and Seed Dispersal among Two Telecoprid and Two Paracoprid Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Fig. 4. Comparative analysis of dung removal and secondary dispersal of small and large seeds by single male/ female pair of Canthon rutilans cyanescens (Cr), Deltochilum multicolor (Dm), Dichotomius sericeus (Ds), and Phanaeus splendidulus (Ps) exposed to dog feces for two and seven days. Squares with the same letter and color are not significantly different (Tukey test, P> 0.05).

Fig. 3 in Comparative Analysis of the Ecological Functions of Dung Removal and Seed Dispersal among Two Telecoprid and Two Paracoprid Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Fig. 3. Box plots of the median, first, and third quartile, and lower and upper limits of dung removal and secondary seed dispersal by two paracoprid dung beetles as single male/female pair and three male/female pairs exposed to dog feces for two, seven, and 21 days. A) Dung removal capacity, B) Small seed dispersal, and C) Large seed dispersal by Dichotomius sericeus. D) Dung removal capacity, E) Small seed dispersal, and F) Large seed dispersal by Phanaeus splendidulus. Plots with the same letter are not significantly different (Tukey test, P> 0.05).

Fig. 1 in Comparative Analysis of the Ecological Functions of Dung Removal and Seed Dispersal among Two Telecoprid and Two Paracoprid Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Fig. 1. Arenas for the study of dung removal and secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles. A) Arena for telecoprids with 30 g of dyed feces divided into three portions of 10 g each with a variable number of artificial seeds, B) Closed arena covered with veil-type fabric, C) Arena protected from rain. D, E, and F show the same sequence for the arenas for paracoprids.

Fig. 2 in Comparative Analysis of the Ecological Functions of Dung Removal and Seed Dispersal among Two Telecoprid and Two Paracoprid Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Fig. 2. Box plots of the median, first, and third quartile, and lower and upper limits of dung removal and secondary seed dispersal by two telecoprid dung beetles as single male/female pair and three male/female pairs exposed to dog feces for two, seven, and 21 days. A) Dung removal capacity, B) Small seed dispersal, and C) Large seed dispersal by Canthon rutilans cyanescens. D) Dung removal capacity, E) Small seed dispersal, and F) Large seed dispersal by Deltochilum multicolor. Plots with the same letter are not significantly different (Tukey test, P> 0.05).