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FIGURE 1 in Morphological variation during post-embryonic development in the centipede Lithobius melanops: traditional and geometric morphometrics approaches

FIGURE 1 Anamorphic post-embryonic developmental stages in L. melanops (dorsal view). Abbreviations: A0 – anamorph 0; A1 – anamorph 1; A2 – anamorph 2; A3 – anamorph 3; A4 – anamorph 4. Scale bar: 1 mm.

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FIGURE 2 in Morphological variation during post-embryonic development in the centipede Lithobius melanops: traditional and geometric morphometrics approaches

FIGURE 2 Epimorphic post-embryonic developmental stages in L. melanops (dorsal view). Abbreviations: AG – agenitalis; iM – immaturus; PM – praematurus; PS – pseudomaturus; M – maturus. Scale bar: 5 mm.

Fig. 4 in Geometric Morphometric Approach To Establish Phylogenetic Affinities Of Enigmatic Pterosaur Specimens From The Lower Cretaceous Of South Korea

Fig. 4. Principal component analysis (PCA) of morphometric data collected from a variety of pterodactyloid teeth, with the South Korean specimens highlighted. A, PC1 versus PC2; B, PC3 versus PC4.

Fig. 3. Pterodactyloid tooth shape analyzed using geometric morphometrics. A in Geometric Morphometric Approach To Establish Phylogenetic Affinities Of Enigmatic Pterosaur Specimens From The Lower Cretaceous Of South Korea

Fig. 3. Pterodactyloid tooth shape analyzed using geometric morphometrics. A, major changes in tooth shape on PC1; B, major changes in tooth shape on PC2; C, major changes in tooth shape on PC3; D, major changes in tooth shape on PC4. Red numbers indicate landmark positions.

Fig. 5 in Geometric Morphometric Approach To Establish Phylogenetic Affinities Of Enigmatic Pterosaur Specimens From The Lower Cretaceous Of South Korea

Fig. 5. Shape of the proximal part of the pterosaur second wing phalanx, analyzed using geometric morphometrics. A, major changes in shape on PC1; B, major changes in shape on PC2; C, major changes in shape on PC3; D, major changes in shape on PC4. Red numbers indicate landmark positions.

Fig. 2 in Geometric Morphometric Approach To Establish Phylogenetic Affinities Of Enigmatic Pterosaur Specimens From The Lower Cretaceous Of South Korea

Fig. 2. Landmarks and semilandmark configurations for geometric morphometrics, with YCS 2001 and SNUVP 201901 (restored) as examples. A, Landmark and semilandmark positions used for teeth; B, Landmark and semilandmark positions for the proximal part of the second wing phalanx. Illustrations of YCS 2001 and SNUVP 201901 are after Yun et al. (2007) and Park et al. (2020), respectively.

Fig. 1. Map showing the localities where the analyzed South Korean pterosaur fossils were discovered. A, fossil locality yielding pterosaur teeth KPE 40001 and YCS 2001 in Geometric Morphometric Approach To Establish Phylogenetic Affinities Of Enigmatic Pterosaur Specimens From The Lower Cretaceous Of South Korea

Fig. 1. Map showing the localities where the analyzed South Korean pterosaur fossils were discovered. A, fossil locality yielding pterosaur teeth KPE 40001 and YCS 2001 (with YCS 2001 as an example); B, fossil locality where the second wing phalanx SNUVP 201901 was excavated. Images of YCS 2001 and SNUVP 201901 are modified from Yun et al. (2007) and Park et al. (2020), respectively, and the pterosaur silhouette is from phylopic.org (courtesy of FunkMonk, CC BY-SA 3.0).

Fig. 6 in Geometric Morphometric Approach To Establish Phylogenetic Affinities Of Enigmatic Pterosaur Specimens From The Lower Cretaceous Of South Korea

Fig. 6. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the morphometric data collected from the proximal part of second wing phalanges of various pterosaurs, with the South Korean specimen (SNUVP 201901) highlighted. A, PC1 versus PC2; B, PC3 versus PC4.

FIGURE 15 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 15. Allometric shape variation in the M1-3 of Sparassodonta as shown by the Procrustes-transformed coordinates. (A) Superimposed differences in allometric shape at the smallest (black) and largest (gray) extremes of the size range of the dataset. (B-C) Deformation grids showing differences in allometric shape variation between the sample average and (B) minimum size and (C) maximum size. Differences between loci are magnified by a factor of 2 to better illustrate patterns of variation.

FIGURE 6 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 6. Inter-locus variation in the M1-3 of Sparassodonta as shown by the Procrustes-transformed coordinates of the geometric morphometric analysis. (A) Superimposed differences between tooth loci in the Procrustes-transformed coordinates of the average shape of M1 (large gray circles) and M3 (small black circles). The other three images show deformation grids from the average shape of all 114 examined specimens relative to the average shape of (B) M1, (C) M2, and (D) M3. Differences between loci are magnified by a factor of 3 to better illustrate patterns of variation.

FIGURE 7 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 7. Plot of shape data (as regression score; see Drake and Klingenberg, 2008 for definition) versus natural log centroid size for all teeth of known locus in the trigon + talon dataset, showing the allometric signal in the data and the slight clustering of the teeth by locus. The extreme outlier in centroid size is the M3 of Proborhyaena gigantea, which is very large compared to the other teeth examined.

FIGURE 11 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 11. Similar to Figure 10, but with the trigon-only dataset. Plot of the first two canonical variates (CVs) of the all-taxon, trigon-only discriminant analysis with tooth locus coded by symbol and incorrectly-classified specimens uncolored. Convex hulls represent morphospace occupied by each tooth locus.

FIGURE 3 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 3. Right upper molar row of Borhyaena tuberata (MACN-A 6203), showing the change in absolute and relative sizes of the paracone and metacone from M1-3 and the relatively little inter-locus variation in stylar shelf morphology. Scale equals 5 mm.

FIGURE 2. Right M2 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 2. Right M2 of Acyon myctoderos (UATF-V-000926), a specimen close to the mean shape of the entire dataset, showing the morphological features of interest (A) and geometric morphometric landmarks and semilandmarks (B) used in this study. Anatomical abbreviations: alc, anterolabial cingulum (often extensive and continuous with preparaconular crista); cc, centrocrista; ef, ectoflexus; mco, metaconule; met, metacone; msl, metastylar lobe of stylar shelf; par, paracone; pco, paraconule; pmc, postmetacrista; ppc, preparacrista; pro, protocone; psl, parastylar lobe of stylar shelf; ss, stylar shelf; StA, stylar cusp A; StB, stylar cusp B. In B, squares represent fixed landmarks and circles represent semilandmarks.

FIGURE 16 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 16. (A) TPS deformation grid showing allometric shape variation extrapolated beyond the lower bounds of the present dataset by a factor of 3 compared to (B) a photograph of the M3 of Pediomys elegans (modified from Davis, 2007: fig. 3c). Scale equals 1 mm.

FIGURE 14 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 14. Visualization of shape changes in two Miocene borhyaenids that show little change between tooth loci. (A) M1 (gray) and M3 (black) of Borhyaena tuberata (MACN-A 6404) and (B) M2 (gray) and M3 (black) of Arctodictis sinclairi (AMNH 27909).

FIGURE 13. Superimposed landmark diagrams visualizing shape changes between M1 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 13. Superimposed landmark diagrams visualizing shape changes between M1 (large gray circles) and M3 (small black circles) of selected non-borhyaenid sparassodonts: (A) Allqokirus australis (MNHC 8267), (B) Patene coluapiensis (AMNH 28448), (C) Procladosictis anomala (MACN-A 10327), (D) Hondadelphys fieldsi (UCMP 37960), (E) Sipalocyon gracilis (AMNH 9254), (F) Lycopsis longirostrus (UCMP 38061), (G) Prothylacynus patagonicus (MACN-A 707), (H) Thylacosmilus atrox (MMP 1443).

FIGURE 8 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 8. Plot of teeth by locus on the first two principal components for the all-taxon, trigon + talon dataset, colorcoded as pertaining to either Borhyaenoidea, Hathliacynidae, or basal Sparassodonta.

FIGURE 10 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 10. Plot of the first two canonical variates (CVs) of the all taxon, trigon + talon discriminant analysis, with tooth locus coded by symbol and incorrectly-classified specimens uncolored. Convex hulls represent morphospace occupied by each tooth locus.

FIGURE 9 in Identifying tooth position of isolated teeth of sparassodonts (Mammalia: Metatheria) using geometric morphometrics

FIGURE 9. Plot of teeth by locus on the first two principal components for the all-taxon, trigon + talon dataset, colorcoded by relative grinding area (RGA) for that particular taxon. Gray symbols represent taxa for which RGA could not be measured.