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Phylogenetic signals in host-parasite associations for Neotropical bats and Nearctic desert rodents
<p>Hosts and their parasites have strong ecological and evolutionary relationships, with hosts representing habitats and resources for parasites. In the present study, we use approaches developed to evaluate the statistical dependence of species trait values on phylogenetic relationships to determine whether host–parasite relationships (i.e. parasite infections) are contingent on host phylogeny. If host–parasite relationships are contingent on the ability of hosts to provide habitat or resources to parasites, and if host phylogeny is an effective surrogate for among-host variation in habitat and resource quality, host–parasite relationships should evince phylogenetic signals (i.e. be contingent on host phylogeny). Because the strength of ecological relationships between parasites and their hosts may affect the likelihood of phylogenetic signals occurring in host–parasite relationships, we hypothesized that (1) host specificity would be positively correlated with the strength of phylogenetic signals and (2) the strength of phylogenetic signals will be greater for parasites that rely more on their host throughout their life cycle. Analyses were conducted for ectoparasites from tropical bats and for ectoparasites, helminths, and coccidians from desert rodents. Phylogenetic signals were evaluated for parasite presence and for parasite prevalence. The frequency of phylogenetic signal occurrence was similar for parasite presence and prevalence, with a signal detected in 24–27% of cases at the species level and in 67% and 15% of cases at the genus level for parasites of bats and rodents, respectively. No differences in signal strength or the likelihood of detecting a signal existed between groups of parasites. Phylogenetic signal strength was correlated with host specificity, suggesting that mechanisms increasing host specificity also increase the likelihood of a phylogenetic signal in host use by parasites. Differences in the transmission mode did not affect signal strength or the likelihood of detecting a signal, indicating that variation in host switching opportunities associated with the transmission mode does not affect signal strength.</p>
Fig. 6 in Comparative phylogeography of bamboo bats of the genus Tylonycteris (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) in Southeast Asia
Fig. 6. Distribution and species richness for the eight genera of woody bamboo forests currently found in Asia (adapted and modified from Bystriakova et al. 2003b) and putative geographic range areas of the species of Tylonycteris. During glacial periods of the Pleistocene, the highlighted biogeographic regions may have acted as bamboo refugia for Tylonycteris spp. Moreover, sea level falls (at around 120 m below present) exposed land bridges, such as the entire Sunda Shelf (adapted from Voris 2000), connecting the islands to the continent.
Fig. 5 in Comparative phylogeography of bamboo bats of the genus Tylonycteris (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) in Southeast Asia
Fig. 5. Morphological characteristics of the two nominal species of the genus Tylonycteris Peters, 1872. A. T. pachypus (Temminck, 1840) (corrected taxon name is T. fulvida (Blyth, 1859)), IEBR-VN11- 0015. B. T. robustula Thomas, 1915 (corrected taxon name is T. tonkinensis Tu, Csorba, Ruedi & Hassanin sp. nov.), holotype, IEBR-VN11-0055. Head profiles, ventral and dorsal views, fleshy pads at the base of the thumb and on the sole of the foot, and different views of the skull (dorsal, ventral and lateral). Scale = 10 mm.
Fig. 4 in Comparative phylogeography of bamboo bats of the genus Tylonycteris (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) in Southeast Asia
Fig. 4. Scatter plots obtained from morphological analyses of Tylonycteris spp. A. Range of GLS measurements of specimens within each group of Tylonycteris spp. B. Range of PC*1 scores of specimens of Tylonycteris spp. obtained from PCA of log-transformed raw data of craniodental measurements. C. Plot of PC 1 against PC 2 obtained from PCA on log-transformed standardized data. Triangles and circles refer to T. pachypus s. lat. and T. robustula s. lat., respectively. Colour patterns indicate the mtDNA haplogroups: green for Tp3 and Tr3 (northern Indochina); blue for Tp2 and Tr2 (other regions of the Southeast Asian mainland); red for Tp1 and Tr1 (Sundaland).
Fig. 1. A–B in Comparative phylogeography of bamboo bats of the genus Tylonycteris (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) in Southeast Asia
Fig. 1. A–B. Maps of Asia showing the distribution range (shaded) and type localities of described subspecies of T. pachypus (Temminck, 1840) and T. robustula Thomas, 1915 (Bates et al. 2008a, 2008b). C. Localities of Tylonycteris specimens included in this study. Triangles and circles refer to T. pachypus and T. robustula, respectively; the colours indicate the mtDNA haplogroups found in the Bayesian analyses of COI and Cytb sequences (see Fig. 2 for details).
FIG. 12 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 12. Optimizations of selected sesamoids that were apparently lost independently in at least two bat lineages; red indicates presence of the sesamoid in a taxon or clade, blue indicates absence, and gray indicates ambiguity. The topology corresponds to the tree shown in figure 3.
FIG. 10 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 10. Optimizations of selected sesamoids found to be present in just one terminal taxon; red indicates presence of the sesamoid in a taxon, blue indicates absence, and gray indicates ambiguity. The topology corresponds to the tree shown in figure 3.
FIG. 6 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 6. Selected sesamoids in the hind limb and tail of various extant species. A. Left joint between pelvic girdle and femur of Carollia perspicillata (dorsal view). B. Right knee of Eptesicus furinalis (tibial). C. Left knee of Tadarida brasiliensis (fibular). D. Left knee of Sturnira lilium (tibial).
FIG. 4 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 4. Selected sesamoids in the forelimb of various extant species. A. Left shoulder of Dasypterus ega (dorsal view). B. Left elbow of Molossops temminkii (dorsal). C. Left elbow of Tadarida brasiliensis (ventral). D. Right carpus of Eptesicus furinalis (dorsal).
FIG. 3 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 3. Phylogeny used in the optimization analysis of sesamoid characters follows relationships proposed by Simmons et al. (2008; extinct taxa indicated with a dagger) and Amador et al. (2018; extant taxa). Species represented in our dataset exclusively by data from autopodial sesamoids compiled from prior studies are indicated with an asterisk (*).
FIG. 2 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 2. Eocene bat fossils: Icaronycteris index YPM-PU 18150 showing some of the preserved sesamoids, highlighted with red lines. A. Left elbow (dorsal view). B. Left carpus (dorsal). C. Right tarsus (ventral-preaxial). D. Left knee (fibular). E. Right foot (ventral). F. Sequence of caudal vertebrae (dorsal).
FIG. 7 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 7. Selected sesamoids in the hind limb and tail of various extant species. A. Right tarsus of Dasypterus ega (dorsal). B. Right autopodium of Artibeus planirostris (dorsal). C. Right autopodium of Eptesicus furinalis (ventral). D. Caudal vertebrae of E. furinalis (dorsal).
FIG. 1 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 1. Eocene bat fossils: Onychonycteris finneyi AMNH 142467 showing some of the preserved sesamoids, highlighted with red lines. A. Left elbow (dorsal view). B. Left carpus (ventral-preaxial). C. Left knee (tibial). D. Right foot (dorsal).
FIG. 13 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 13. Comparison between the elbow of bats (A, left elbow of Dasypterus ega; B, left elbow of Molossops temminkii) and humans (C, D, modified from Mittal et al., 2014), including either an olecranon (A, C) or an ulnar patella (B, D). The possible homology between the ulnar patella in bats and the anomalous "patella cubiti" in humans is shown.
FIG. 5 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 5. Selected sesamoids in the forelimb of various extant species. A. Right carpus of Tadarida brasiliensis (ventral). B. Right carpus of Eptesicus furinalis (ventral). C. Metacarpo-phalangeal joint of wing digits II, III, and V of E. furinalis (ventral). D. Interphalangeal joints of wing digits III (lateral) and I (dorsolateral) of Artibeus planirostris.
FIG. 8 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 8. Optimizations of selected sesamoids that characterize particular clades and which may represent synapomorphies; red indicates presence of the sesamoid in a taxon or clade, blue indicates absence, and gray indicates ambiguity. The topology corresponds to the tree shown in figure 3.
FIG. 9 in Morphology and Evolution of Sesamoid Elements in Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
FIG. 9. Optimizations of selected sesamoids interpreted in this study as probable plesiomorphic features of crown Chiroptera; red indicates presence of the sesamoid, and gray indicates ambiguity. The topology corresponds to the tree shown in figure 3.
Figure S1 in New Insights into the Taxonomy of Myotis Bats in China Based on Morphology and Multilocus Phylogeny
Figure S1. Phylogenetic trees reconstructed based on 123 mitochondrial Cytb haplotypes. Values on the branches represent posterior probability obtained with MrBayes (A) and bootstrap percentage obtained with IQ-TREE (B). Geometries of different colors and shapes represent Myotis species. The information on mitochondrial haplotypes was described in Table S3.
Figure 2 in New Insights into the Taxonomy of Myotis Bats in China Based on Morphology and Multilocus Phylogeny
Figure 2. Principal component analysis based on five morphological characteristics. The first two principal components explained 88.77% and 6.77% of the total variance, respectively. Geometries with different colors and shapes represent Myotis species.
Figure 4 in New Insights into the Taxonomy of Myotis Bats in China Based on Morphology and Multilocus Phylogeny
Figure 4. (A) Species tree constructed in *BEAST based on Cytb, Rag2, and Chd1 genes. Values on the branch represent posterior probability. (B) Heatmap of K2P genetic distance calculated based on mitochondrial Cytb gene (lower triangular) and concatenated nuclear genes (upper triangular). Geometries with different colors and shapes represent Myotis species and corresponds to the species on the left side.
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