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Fig. 20 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 20. Optimization of the absence [0] and presence [1] of upper incisors in megabats, using the optimal tree from the combined analysis of Giannini and Simmons (2005; modified from their fig. 7). Optimization of the absence/presence of I1 absence/presence is represented along the branches. Optimization of the absence/presence of I2 is shown with black arrows representing a 1 + 0 transformation (loss of I2). Absence/ presence of both I1 and I2 is inapplicable in the outgroup Megaderma lyra as this bat lacks the premaxillary bone that supports the upper incisors when present.

Fig. 8. Chironax melanocephalus AMNH 216739 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 8. Chironax melanocephalus AMNH 216739 (A), Aethalops alecto AMNH 216729 (B), Haplonycteris fischeri AMNH 142748 (C), Otopteropus cartilagonodus FMNH 573447 (D), and Balionycteris maculata AMNH 216755 (E), mental view of the mandible (left column) and occlusal view of the tip of the mandible (right column). Scales 5 1 mm.

Fig. 18. Nyctimene albiventer AMNH 198617 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 18. Nyctimene albiventer AMNH 198617, occlusal view of the mandible, presence of an extra lower molar (m3) in an otherwise typical mandible and dentition. Note the normal pattern of tooth wear in the dentition, which suggests that the extra tooth did not pose functional problems to the individual. Abbreviations: c lower canine, m1 first lower molar, m2 second lower molar, m3 atavistic third lower molar, p1 first lower premolar, p3 third lower premolar, p4 fourth lower premolar. Scale 5 2 mm.

Fig. 7. Dobsonia magna AMNH 108486 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 7. Dobsonia magna AMNH 108486, occlusal view of the anterior mandible showing pattern of replacement of lower incisors. Abbreviations: c lower canine, dc deciduous lower canine, di1 deciduous first lower incisor, di2 deciduous second lower incisor, dp3 deciduous third lower premolar, i2 second lower incisor, p1 first lower premolar, p3 third lower premolar, p4 fourth lower premolar. Scale 5 2 mm.

Fig. 6. Dobsonia pannietensis AMNH 159142 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 6. Dobsonia pannietensis AMNH 159142, oblique ventrocaudal view of the anterior palate showing the pattern of replacement of upper incisors. Abbreviations: C upper canine, dC deciduous upper canine, dI1 deciduous first upper incisor, dI2 deciduous second upper incisor, P3 third upper premolar. Scale 5 2 mm.

Fig. 5 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 5. Melonycteris (Nesonycteris) woodfordi AMNH 99950 (A), Notopteris macdonaldi AMNH 119455 (B), and Melonycteris melanops AMNH 194333 (C), occlusal view of the anterior mandible showing the hypothesized loss of the first lower incisor in M. woodfordi and N. macdonaldi (see text). Note that in M. melanops the right first lower incisor is lost and the left i1 is smaller than i2. Abbreviations: c lower canine, i1 first lower incisor, i2 second lower incisor, p1 first lower premolar, p3 third lower premolar, p4 fourth lower premolar. Scale 5 2 mm.

Fig. 4. Notopteris macdonaldi AMNH 119455 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 4. Notopteris macdonaldi AMNH 119455 (A) and Melonycteris melanops AMNH 194333 (B), ventral view of the anterior palate and dentition showing the hypothesized loss of the first upper incisor in N. macdonaldi (see text). Abbreviations: C upper canine, I1 first upper incisor, I2 second upper incisor, P1 first upper premolar, P3 third upper premolar. Scale 5 2 mm.

Fig. 2. Cynopterus sphinx BMNH 6.11.6.42 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 2. Cynopterus sphinx BMNH 6.11.6.42, presence of a connate incisor formed by the fusion of the crowns of a normal incisor (I2) and a probably atavistic I3.

Fig. 1. Epomophorus gambianus BMNH 99.6.15.2 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 1. Epomophorus gambianus BMNH 99.6.15.2, view of the palate. An extra, peglike tooth (?) is present on the right side between typical posterior premolars, which are undisputed P3 and P4 of the dental formula of extant eutherians. Abbreviations: C upper canine, M1 first upper molar, P3 third upper premolar, P4 fourth upper premolar. Scale 5 5 mm.

Fig. 3. Eonycteris major AMNH 130319 in Element Homology and the Evolution of Dental Formulae in Megachiropteran Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Fig. 3. Eonycteris major AMNH 130319 (A) and Rousettus (Boneia) bidens (B), ventral view of the anterior palate and dentition showing the hypothesized loss of the first upper incisor in R. bidens (see text). Abbreviations: C upper canine, I1 first upper incisor, I2 second upper incisor, P1 first upper premolar, P3 third upper premolar, P4 fourth upper premolar. Scale 5 2 mm.

Figure 10. A in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 10. A schematic representation summarizing our hypotheses of differences in composition of the neural complex in otophysan subgroups, based on the more generalized state of supradorsal and supraneural elements in non-otophysan basal teleosts. Supraneural cartilages and supradorsals are marked in grey. Evolutionary steps are shown as rectangles, with associated letters referring to the following synapomorphies: A, loss of supraneural 1 and its cartilaginous precursor. B, loss of supradorsals 2 and all supradorsals posterior to vertebra 4, neural complex formed by fusion of supradorsals 3 and 4 with supraneural 2 and 3 cartilages. C, loss of supraneural 2 and its cartilaginous precursor, neural complex formed by fusion of anteriorly shifted supraneural 3 cartilage with supradorsals 3 and 4. D, development of cartilaginous bridges between supradorsals 3 and 4 of each side that fuse with supraneural 3 cartilage to form the neural complex. E, loss of supraneural 3 and its cartilaginous precursor; note that among siluriforms Diplomystes, some ictalurids, pimelodids, and schilbids still retain supraneural 3.

Figure 7 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 7. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in ctenoluciid and erythrinid Characiformes. A–E, Ctenolucius hujeta. A, 10.2 mm. B, 13.5 mm. C, 16.2 mm. D, same as in part C, in close-up and dorsal view. E, 23.3 mm. F–I, Hoplias malabaricus. F, 7.7 mm. G, 8.1 mm. H, 8.5 mm. I, 9.7 mm.

Figure 8 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 8. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in two apteronotid Gymnotiformes. A–E, Apteronotus leptorhynchus. A, 9.0 mm. B, 10.6 mm. C, 10.8 mm. D, 11.2 mm. E, 11.9 mm. F–I, A. albifrons. F, 11.0 mm. G, 12.0 mm. H, 16.0 mm. I, same as in part H, in dorsal view and close-up, arrow points to incisure resulting from incomplete median fusion of supradorsals 4. J, 19.8 mm.

Figure 9 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 9. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in different Siluriformes. A, Diplomystes chilensis, 60 mm. B–G, Silurus glanis. B, 11.6 mm. C, 12.4 mm. D, 13.4 mm. E, 15.4 mm. F, same as in part E, in dorsal view, arrow points to incisure resulting from incomplete median fusion of supradorsals 4. G, 16.6 mm. H–J, Ancistrus sp. H, 6.3 mm. I, 6.5 mm. J, 7.5 mm.

Figure 5 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 5. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in African alestid Characiformes. A–F, Rhabdalestes septentrionalis, lateral view. A, 7.1 mm. B, 7.3 mm. C, 7.5 mm, arrows mark median anterodorsal and anteroventral processes of the left side. D, same as (C), dorsal view. E, 8.0 mm. F, 8.4 mm. G–J, Alestopetersius smykalai, lateral view. G, 8.3 mm. H, 8.7 mm. I, 8.6 mm. J, 9.1 mm.

Figure 6 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 6. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in lebiasinid Characiformes. A–E, Lebiasina bimaculata. A, 7.7 mm. B, 8.0 mm. C, 9.0 mm. D, 9.9 mm. E, 11.2 mm. F–J, Pyrrhulina spiloptera. F, 6.0 mm. G, 6.2 mm. H, 6.4 mm. I, 7.4 mm. J, 8.2 mm

Figure 4 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 4. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in Cypriniformes. A–F, Puntius sp. A, 4.7 mm. B, 5.1 mm. C, 5.3 mm. D, 5.1 mm. E, 5.4 mm. F, 7.3 mm. G–I, Myxocyprinus asiaticus, lateral view. G, 16.3 mm. H, 16.8 mm. I, 20.1 mm. J, Rasbora daniconius, 11.9 mm, lateral view.

Figure 3 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 3. Developmental stages of the anterior five neural arches and associated structures in Cypriniformes. A–F, Devario aequipinnatus, lateral view. A, 6.5 mm. B, 7.1 mm. C, 7.1 mm close-up. D, 7.6 mm. E, 7.5 mm. F, 14.5 mm. G–J, Cyprinus carpio, lateral view. G, 8.6 mm. H, 9.1 mm. I, 9.8 mm. J, 11.1 mm.

Figure 1. A in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 1. A schematic representation illustrating the typical components of anterior abdominal vertebrae in a basal teleost. Supraneurals and supradorsals are marked in grey.

Figure 2 in Ontogeny and homology of the neural complex of otophysan Ostariophysi

Figure 2. Anterior neural arches and associated structures in non-Otophysi. A, Pantodon buchholzi, 9.7 mm, lateral view. B, P. buchholzi, 11.3 mm, lateral and slightly anterodorsal view. C, Elops machnata, 39.2 mm, lateral and slightly anterodorsal view. D, Oncorhynchus mykiss, 24.0 mm, lateral and slightly anterodorsal view. E, Chanos chanos, 18.7 mm. F, same as (E), but in close-up and dorsolateral view. G–J, developmental stages of Kneria sp., lateral view. G, 7.5 mm. H, 8.8 mm. I, 9.2 mm. J, 12.4 mm.